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To minimize the consequences of risks, some resources are reserved.
If there are too many, it is worth considering the feasibility of the project.
At the planning stage, the critical path of the project is determined, i.e.
a list of tasks that cannot be performed without completing the previous one.
Here are examples of task dependencies: you cannot publish materials on the
employee dashboard until there is a dashboard; to perform one task, you need to
complete another.
The project goal is best defined using the SMART goal setting system.
The system is based on the principles of specificity, measurability, achievability,
relevance and time frames.
The result of this stage should be a clear schedule or plan with tasks for
each performer
Stage 3. Project implementation
This stage accounts for the bulk of the work. It is important to ensure that
each team member adheres to the developed plan and does their part of the
work. The following actions are performed:
Suppliers of resources required to perform project work are selected.
Parameters determining the quality of the manufactured product or
service are specified.
Communications between participants in work processes, their
managers and clients are established.
Work on team development and training continues. Team building and
support activities are carried out.
Efficient channels for transmitting information are formed.
Stage 4. Project monitoring
This stage runs parallel to the implementation stage. At this stage, it is
important to track how the assigned tasks are being completed and make sure of
the following:
Deadlines are met.
The team does not do unnecessary work.
Expenses remain within the budget.
All actions lead to the original goal (with direct implementation, you
can lose sight of the big picture).
In addition, it is worth holding regular planning meetings to keep all team
members informed. If the project manager notices a deviation from the plan, it is
necessary to adjust the direction as the work progresses or change the original
project plan according to new circumstances.
Stage 5. Project completion
This stage signifies the formal completion of the project work. It includes
the following actions:
Conduct a retrospective to discuss successfully completed tasks and
areas where improvements are possible.
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Prepare a final project report and, if necessary, present it to stakeholders.
Conduct a final assessment of the financial situation of the project.
Save all project documentation in a safe place and freely available for
further use.
After the project is delivered to the customer, it is necessary to assess their
satisfaction with the result, based on which you will be able to draw useful
conclusions for future projects. When all tasks are completed, it is very
important to sum up the results in order to finish the project and set yourself up
for the success of the next one.
9.3. Classical approach to project management
There are many project management options. First, let's look at the
differences between the terms «model» and «methodology (method)».
A model is a set of methods and principles.
There are two project management models:
Waterfall.
Agile.
A methodology is a ready-made algorithm for applying methods, often
called a framework.
These include Scrum, Kanban, Lean, SixSigma, PRINCE2 and others.
Classical Waterfall model
This model is suitable for cases when the customer clearly understands
what the finished product should be.
Development occurs sequentially, and intermediate results are not
demonstrated to the client. At the same time, it is possible to identify and correct
errors only at the testing stage, and the next stage of work does not begin until
the previous one is completed.
Thus, the main feature of this approach is dividing the project into
successive stages:
Gathering requirements. Here, project requirements are collected and
formalized into a technical specification, which outlines the work plan, expected
risks, and roles in the team.
Design. Here, the main principles of the product are defined, such as
software logic, building architecture, and aircraft design. Tools are selected for
these principles, such as programming languages, construction methods, and
aircraft modeling technologies.
Development. Here, the product is made according to the plan and
technical specifications: code is written, a building is built, and an aircraft is
assembled. Development takes up most of the project.
Testing. Here, the product is checked for compliance with the technical
specifications, and errors are found and corrected.
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Operation and support. Here, the product is released and supported:
Advantages
Disadvantages
Availability of instructions and rules for the
entire process.
Work begins with a detailed analysis of the
customer's requirements and how the project
will be implemented. Plans, stages and
processes are approved in advance, recorded
in documents and do not raise questions. The
contractor just needs to follow them
Lack of flexibility. It is impossible to foresee
all the problems in the project in advance.
Due to the strict sequence of stages,
shortcomings will only become known at the
end of the project, one will have to do
additional iterations and start work again, and
this means new costs and extra working
hours
Certainty in deadlines and budget.
The cost of the product and the deadlines for
the project are calculated and approved at the
very beginning and do not change during the
process
The customer is not allowed to participate in
the development and testing.
They cannot comment on the layouts or
prototypes and see the result only at the end
of the project. It is impossible to take into
account changes in requirements or
conditions in advance.
No additional costs for communication in the
team.
Even if a new contractor comes, it will be
possible to understand the task and start
working quickly: there are described rules for
all processes
Problems only emerge during testing.
It is impossible to do part of the work and
immediately test it or combine development
and testing to find vulnerabilities. Testing
begins after the end of development, so often
the flaws are discovered too late
errors are fixed, functionality is maintained, user feedback is collected, and new
functions are added.
Table 9.2 presents its advantages and disadvantages.
Table 9.2
Advantages and disadvantages of the classic Waterfall model
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Hybrid project management methods
In order to find errors at early stages and adapt the project to changing
circumstances, several elements of the agile approach are added to the waterfall
model. This methodology is called hybrid.
Waterfall model with feedback
Feedbacks are added to solve the problem of late testing. They are
triggered when errors are found during work, which allows them to be corrected
without waiting for verification. But in this case, it is more difficult to plan the
project, allocate the budget and meet the deadline (Fig. 9.1).
Fig. 9.1. Waterfall model with feedback
Iterative waterfall model
In this method, not the entire result is transferred to the next stage, but the
working part. When the project produces a part of a working product, a new
(different) project begins, in which another part is made. This process is called
iterative and is usually used to develop software, applications and websites (Fig. 9.2).
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Fig. 9.2. Iterative waterfall model
Parallel and flow method of performing work
in the waterfall methodology
When performing work sequentially, one cannot start a new stage until the
previous one is completed – this increases the project duration. To solve this
problem, the sequence of work is changed. Here, the parallel method of
performing work is used. In this approach, work at different stages is done
simultaneously. For example, if a project requires building three houses, they are
built at once, and not one after another. This significantly speeds up the project,
but also increases the budget (Fig. 9.2, 9.3).
This approach maintains a balance between sequential and parallel
methods. In it, the team transfers part of the work to the next stage and
immediately starts doing the next part. For example, having built the foundation
for the first house, the team starts building the foundation for the second, and
transfers the first house to the team that builds the walls. This way, the project
goes faster, and the team's costs do not increase (Fig. 9.4).
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Fig. 9.3. The difference between the sequential and parallel method
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Fig. 9.4. Comparison of the sequential and flow methods
Flow method of performing work
Advantages
Disadvantages
You can develop a product much faster and
thereby meet customer needs
Managers and customers may have difficulty
approving and supporting projects that do not
have precise schedules, budgets, and scope
One can react more quickly to changes and
unexpected problems, resulting in less
rework and higher quality of the final
product
Managers may have difficulty making longterm plans when it is unclear whether
resources will be available for the next project
or will be used for the current Agile project
A flexible approach to project management
The second project management model is the Agile model.
An agile model
This approach is characterized by cyclical development. The project is
implemented in several small time intervals, after each of which we can show
the intermediate result to the customer and get feedback. The Agile approach
involves the use of iterations and dividing the project into sprints. Detailed
planning is performed only for the next sprint, and the following sprints can
change. Sprints are typically two to four weeks long, and each sprint should
produce a specific deliverable.
Features of the agile model
Agile methods are considered cutting-edge in design. Their purpose is to
quickly release high-quality software. It is also a business approach that
connects the product development process with the needs of users and the
desires of the customer. The Agile model eliminates the risk of a team spending
many months or years on a process that will eventually fail due to a minor defect
made early on. Instead, the development team directly collaborates with
customers to understand their needs and generate an optimized, high-quality
solution as quickly as possible.
Key principles:
People and their interactions are more important than processes and
tools.
A product that works is more important than documentation described in
detail.
Customer interaction is more important than clarifying the details of the
contract.
Being ready for innovation is more important than sticking to the
original plan.
Two main frameworks were created on the basis of Agile – Scrum and
Kanban.
Table 9.3
Advantages and disadvantages of the agile model
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End of the table 9.3
Advantages
Disadvantages
Team members spend less time on routine
work, processes, and paperwork that do not
bring real value
Companies with a work-oriented,
bureaucratic, and paperwork-heavy approach
are more likely to avoid the Agile approach
Feedback is delivered immediately, helping
to identify and resolve issues before they
become a threat
Progress can sometimes be difficult to assess
due to the use of multiple sprints, which can
be set up and run as individual mini-projects
The client is constantly updated on the
progress of the work, which leads to higher
levels of engagement and satisfaction, as
well as the formation of long-term, strong
relationships
Agile projects often take more time and effort
to complete, since many methods require
daily meetings and constant interaction with
the client
It is much easier to innovate, experiment,
and improve processes
The length and scope of the project can get
out of control due to the lack of clear
boundaries that are not set up from the start
Short sprints that result in working versions
of the product create a sense of constant
victories, thereby raising the morale of team
members
Some large and long projects are difficult to
break down into short sprints
By planning individual sprints, there will be
less loss in the event that the project falls
through or is cancelled, since there is no
need to plan the entire scope of work in
advance
Since the emphasis is on deliverables rather
than documentation, it often happens that
team members do not write down information,
which could help in the implementation of the
following projects
Scrum
Scrum is a method for organizing a collaborative workflow based on the
step-by-step development and improvement of a product by a small team of
specialists from various fields.
In the Scrum approach, a product concept is first formed. Then, a scope of
tasks or a backlog is formed from the concept.
A product backlog is a list of ideas for a product. They are maintained in
the order in which work on it is planned. This list is the only source from which
all requirements follow.
Based on the backlog, sprints are determined – intervals, according to the
results of which versions of the product are obtained, ready for demonstration to
the client.
Since this approach does not require clearly defining stages and focusing
on requirements, project performers have the opportunity to experiment and
make changes right at the development stages. This is why Agile is great for
creative projects.
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Scrum can be roughly divided into the following stages:
1. Developing a product backlog.
The team discusses all the tasks that need to be completed during the
product development period.
2. Planning sprints.
At this stage, tasks are defined that are taken from stage 1 in order to
complete them in this interval.
3. Scrum meetings, or standups.
Daily team meetings to discuss progress and possible problems.
4. Sprint summary.
Demonstration of the results of work during the current interval to the
entire team and the customer.
5. Retrospective.
Discussion of what was good and what can be improved in order to avoid
mistakes in the next development interval. It is important that Scrum is suitable
for companies with a strong and self-organized team. If employees do not know
how to work together productively, this method will not work.
Kanban
This is a freer and less structured project management method. It is
translated from Japanese as “card”. Kanban came to us from the Toyota
production system. In automobile factories, such cards were used to transfer
information from one stage to the next about how many and what parts would be
needed. To work with Kanban, it is necessary to define the stages of the
workflow. In Kanban, they are depicted as columns, and tasks are designated by
special cards (Fig. 9.5).
The card moves through the stages like a detail in a factory moving from
machine to machine, and at each stage the percentage of completion becomes
higher. At the output, we receive a product element ready for delivery to the
customer. The board with columns and cards can be either real or electronic –
even here, Kanban does not impose any restrictions on users.
Fig. 9.5. Kanban system
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The Kanban method is used to visualize the flow of intellectual work and
Scrum
Kanban
Team participates in a specific iteration
Participation is optional
Pre-estimate is mandatory
Estimate is optional
Speed is used to improve the process
Time constraints are used to improve the
process
Sprint delay of only one team
Board can be shared between several teams
A minimum of 3 roles are used (owner,
master, team)
No roles
Scrum board changes between sprints
Kanban board is always the same
A priority is set for each sprint
Priorities are optional
reduce the amount of this unfinished work. Due to this, a uniform and
predictable speed of service delivery to the end user is achieved.
Table 9.4
Differences between Scrum and Kanban
The four pillars on which the Kanban system is based:
1. Cards.
For each task, an individual card is created, in which all the necessary
information about the task is entered. Thus, all the necessary information about
the task is always at hand.
2. Limitation on the number of tasks at a stage.
The number of cards at one stage is strictly regulated. Thanks to this, it
becomes immediately apparent when a «jam» occurs in the flow of operations,
which is quickly eliminated.
3. Continuous flow.
Tasks from the backlog enter the flow in order of priority. Thus, the work
never stops.
4. Continuous improvement («kaizen»).
The concept of continuous improvement appeared in Japan at the end of
the 20th century. Its essence is in the constant analysis of the production process
and the search for ways to increase productivity.
As in the previous method, a strong team is important here. At the same
time, Kanban assumes that its members are not limited only by their job
competencies. If they have certain knowledge or skills, they can help colleagues
and perform tasks together.
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