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6.1. The characteristics of a social group
Individuals constantly interact with each other, are subjects of social action, consciously build re-
lationships at different levels of interaction, playing one social role or another.
We will focus on the fact that society is made up of many social groups; there are hundreds
to thousands of varieties. The individual is a member of many of them. How are groups formed? What
are the factors and causes of their emergence? How to recognize them, what are their characteristics?
An individual’s awareness of his/her place and role in the group, self-identification with the group
is an important condition of his/her existence.
Human, as a biological and social being, cannot exist and develop outside of a group. He satisfies
the need to belonging a group? He is formed as a person in a group, learns values and norms, and assimilates social roles. Sociologist P. Sorokin wrote: “History does not give a person outside the group.
We do not know people absolutely isolated, living outside of communication with other. We are always given groups”.
P. Sorokin understood the social group as a form of interaction and activity of people. The definition of a group as a certain community of people interacting on a permanent basis is also characteristic of other researchers. From the point of view of the modern English sociologist E. Giddens, the key
indicator of the existence of a group is the degree of regular interaction between the members of the
group. M. Olson, an American researcher, also emphasizes interaction as coordination of common
interests of members of a social group. N. Abercrombie, a British sociologist, brings to the fore such
a component of a social group as special social relations.
So, a social group is formed by two (dyad), three (triad) or more people who identify with each
other and interact. People form couples, families, clubs, business enterprises, and large organizations.
In classical and modern science, the main features of a social group are called:
a) obligatory interaction of group members;
b) long-term and regularity of this interaction;
c) identification of group members according to the “We — They” formula;
d) establishment and strict adherence to the group’s norms of behavior and ways of social control;
e) shared role expectations of each group member related to other group members;
f) genesis of special “group” social relations based on the need to implement common interests
and needs;
g) internal organization, formation of various subgroups within the group on the basis of the established distribution of roles/authorities and responsibilities.
Thus, based on the highlighted characteristics, we can say that a social group is a set of individuals interacting with each other on a regular basis, aware of their belonging to the group and expecting
certain forms of behavior from each other.
Some groups emerge accidentally, unintentionally, quickly disintegrate (a crowd), others are created artificially, purposefully; exist for a long time (organizations). There are varieties of groups that
exist only until the goal for which they were created (the project development team).
What sets of people in the same space could be called a group? For example, are individuals who
ride in the same electric train coach a group, even if they move to work in that train every day? Or,
do people who live on the same street in a city constitute a social group? They may occasionally pass
each other and exchange two or three acts of interaction.
However, they diverge in different directions, each of them rushing about their business. According to researchers, such a set of people can be attributed to a social category or to nominal
groups. They do not have all the characteristics of groups, first of all, there is no interaction in such
formations. They are needed only for statistical analysis, inclusion in strategies and plans for socio-economic development.
However, they diverge in different directions, each of them rushing about their business. According to researchers, such a set of people can be attributed to a social category or to nominal
*
Sorokin P. A sociological etude on the basic forms of social behavior and morality // Man, civilization, society. — M.,
1992. — Р. 142.
*
41
groups. They do not have all the characteristics of groups, first of all, there is no interaction in such
formations. They are needed only for statistical analysis, inclusion in strategies and plans for socio-economic development.
A quasi-group or aggregation is another set of people formed unintentionally and is temporary.
In other words, these are people who gathered at the same time in the same place.
Quasi-groups are characterized by:
– spontaneity of emergence;
– instability of relations;
– no long duration of joint actions;
– lack of diversity in interactions;
– uncertainty of composition and boundaries of formation, etc.
Types of quasi-groups:
– audience;
– crowd;
– social circles.
Audience — a community of people united with the communicator — an individual or group possessing information. Communication can take place both directly (for example: a meeting of the audience with the creative group), and indirectly (through the media).
Crowd has the following characteristics: infectivity; suggestibility; imitation, anonymity; low intellectual level, invulnerability.
Depending on how it is formed and how it behaves, a crowd is distinguished:
1) an accidental crowd (people gathered in a circus, or observers of a street incident);
2) a conditioned crowd (people who have gathered for a meeting or a demonstration);
3) expressive crowd (people gathered for pleasure, expression of emotions. For example: a rock
festival, spectators of a soccer match);
4) an acting crowd (an association of people with an extreme type of behavior. A peaceful crowd
can turn into an extremely radical one. For example: pogroms of fans).
Social circles are social communities created for the purpose of exchanging information between
their members. They are the closest to real social groups.
The Polish sociologist J. Szczepański described social circles as loose alliances based on contacts
with little established connection.
J. Szczepański suggested distinguishing several varieties of social circles:
1) contact circles (connection is formed due to the presence of common interests. For example:
people who constantly meet at competitions);
2) professional circles (they are formed due to the commonality of professional interests. For ex-
ample: conferences, symposiums);
3) friendly circles (associations of people formed on the basis of friendship, sympathy. For exam-
ple: companies that gather from time to time on the basis of personal hobbies);
4) status social circles (formed among individuals with the same or similar statuses. For example:
an aristocratic club).
Social circles, according to researchers, are the basis for the formation of active social groups.
This is most clearly seen in politics, in the creation of political parties
6.2. Types of social groups
Social groups are distinguished according to certain characteristics:
– by the character of interactions in the group;
– by the sense of identity.
It is customary to distinguish according to the character of interaction:
Small groups — a set of people interacting face to face. Here people know each other and inter-
act on a regular basis. Examples of small groups: family, circle of friends, study group, sports team,
brigade.
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Large groups — the interaction in them is mostly indirect, as people may not meet and inter-
act face-to-face because of the large number. Large groups include organizations, student streams,
and workshops. Large groups range in size from a few tens to hundreds of thousands.
Primary groups. According to C.H. Cooley, a primary group is a small social group whose mem-
bers are connected by personal and lasting relationships. The individual finds care, help, and trust
in the primary group. People can feel safe here, be “themselves,” receive emotional satisfaction. The
family is a characteristic example of a primary group. It is indeed primary, because it is the first group
with which a person meets after birth and in which the process of primary socialization takes place.
Attitudes, behavior and social identity are formed in the family. They remain close people, despite
some conflicts that arise (for example, siblings do not get along with each other).
Primary groups include the circle of friends. Such a group has no specific, far-reaching goal. Peo-
ple are bound by friendship, trust, emotional attachment, and similar interests.
Primary groups include the circle of friends. Such a group has no specific, far-reaching goal. Peo-
ple are connected by friendship, trust, emotional attachment, and similar interests.
Secondary groups. These are small or large groups in which the relationship is business, formal
and role-based (scientific team, student group, soccer team, organization). Emotional connections
in these groups are weak, personal acquaintance is insignificant, though small secondary groups can
combine both formal-role and personal relations. For example, friendships may arise in a soccer team
and or study group.
Dozens or hundreds of people work together in the same office in large secondary groups —
organizations. Relationships between them are formal and subject to established business/organizational culture requirements. The structure of the organization is created artificially; it must be optimal
to achieve the goal. Team members are not evaluated on their personal qualities, but on their ability
to perform their functions or job duties. The founder of organizational science, the Russian researcher A.A. Bogdanov, defined organization as an association of people who together implement a certain
program or goal and act on the basis of certain procedures and rules.
Life increasingly revolves around formal organizations in modern society. Human is connected
to one organization or another throughout his conscious life, and it could be said that the modern human is a human of organizations.
He is an employee, or comes into contact with them — kindergarten, school, institute, sports sec-
tion, trade union, club, etc. Organizations are a universal form of life organization.
Different interests, incentives and constraints, discipline and free creativity, normative require-
ments and informal initiatives are intertwined here. The organization is a single organism that develops its own culture, traditions, “looks” a certain way (image), behaves a certain way (market behavior
strategy), feels a certain way (social and psychological climate in the organization).
The construction organization is also built according to the model, requirements and structure
to which all formal organizations are subject. However, as a business organization and as a single
organism, it combines several special functional subsystems: technological, production, material
and technical, personnel, management, investment and financial. Work in the construction organization is mainly the development of projects and project management on their implementation, so social
interaction in the construction organization can be considered through the prism of interaction in the
team and in the project groups.
About 210 thousand construction organizations exist today in Russia, 98 % of them have less
than 100 employees, i.e. the majority are small enterprises. 98 % of construction organizations
are private.
Informal small groups arise within organizations. People form friendships, meet after work, spend
holidays together, or go to each other’s birthday parties. Informal relationships can affect and sometimes hinder formal, business relationships.
Sociometry studies the structures of small informal groups in organizations, informal connections
between group members. Sociometric analysis reveals the degree of group cohesion, emotional connections, conformity, sympathies-antipathies of group members.
43
According to the sense of identity, researchers distinguish:
– in groups;
– outgroups;
– reference groups.
In-groups are those social groups to which an individual feels belonging. They are “my group” —
my family, my friends, my street, my city, and my people. An in-group communicates a sense of dignity and loyalty to its members.
It is linked to the outgroup, which is the object of rivalry or opposition. It is not “us”, but “them”.
Opposition is exacerbated very often because the in-group is perceived overly positively and the outgroup is perceived unjustifiably negatively.
The answer to the question “How do we evaluate our attitudes and behavior?” It is that social
group to which the individual would like to belong, the behavior of members of which he imitates.
They serve as a benchmark for him in choosing a standard of behavior or a decision, and the in-
dividual looks up to them. We do not judge ourselves in isolation, we do not compare ourselves with
the first people we see, we compare ourselves only with those people and groups that we recognize
and respect.
6.3. Adaptation and integration to social group
Social adaptation is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon. It is a continuous process during
which an individual or group adapts to a new social environment, its requirements and conditions.
As a result of adaptation, new behavioral patterns, necessary and useful in a given situation, in a given social environment are formed. Both sides: the individual and the social groups interact, inf luencing each other in this process. In relation to migrants, adaptation is explained as the adjustment
of migrants to the host community, the development of behavior in accordance with the traditions
and norms that are accepted by the local population. Social integration is seen as a process of counter-movement of cultures of the dominant community and ethno-cultural group, the mixing of cultural norms, patterns of behavior.
Four stages or levels of adaptation of the individual to the new social environment are distin-
guished:
1) the initial stage
that they should behave differently in the new social environment, but is not yet ready to admit it;
2) the stage of tolerance, when the interacting parties show mutual tolerance of each other’s be-
havior, values and norms;
3) the stage of accommodation, when an individual or group recognizes and accepts the basic val-
ues and norms of the new social environment. There is also a simultaneous acceptance of some of the
individual’s values by this environment;
4) the assimilation stage
havioral patterns of the new group and identifies itself with the new community.
The intensity of adaptation processes increases as cultural diversity increases and new conditions
emerge. Human beings are constantly forced to adapt to changing environments. Adaptation occurs
differently at different ages and in different societies. Willingness to change is one of the main conditions for one’s success in life.
The modern world lives under the conditions of an “unstable” or “f luid” modernity, where
change is the only constant and the unknown is the only certainty. These words of the contemporary Polish-English sociologist Z. Bauman best describe the situation on the planet at the end
of the twentieth and beginning of the twenty-first centuries. Identity in the era of globalization
is a subject of choice; it is characterized by flexibility, mobility. It can change under the pressure
of changing socio-economic, political and other circumstances. As Z. Bauman notes, the problem
of identity today is not only how to find a chosen identity and get others to recognize it, but rather how to choose an identity and how to be able to make another choice in time if the previously chosen identity has lost value. The individual who quickly and successfully adapts to the en-
, when an individual or group already understands that adaptation is necessary,
, when an individual or group assimilates all the values, norms, and be-
44
vironment is in a much more advantageous position, as he gets the opportunity to freely develop
and self-actualize.
The process of adaptation yields a result — adaptability, the degree of which can be established
using certain criteria. The objective criterion is the degree to which an individual implements the new
norms and rules accepted in a given society at a given time. The subjective criterion is the satisfaction
of the individual himself with his membership in the social group to which he now belongs and the
opportunities that have opened up for him.
The means of adaptation are provided by the state, civil society organizations, the worker collec-
tive, and the study group.
For example, the individual enters into interaction with various structures in the organization.
First of all, he faces the values and norms of the organizational/corporate culture, the attitudes of other employees, their tolerance or intolerance. Tensions and conflicts can arise because representatives
of different subcultural groups (age, professional, ethnic, religious) have a different understanding
of attitudes toward work, duty, discipline, order, priority, etc.
For example, the American business style involves assertiveness, competence, pragmatism,
and punctuality. Americans form a strong position and stand firm in business negotiations. They like
to look at various issues as a whole and prefer “package” solutions. At the same time, self-righteous
Americans are egocentric, aggressive, overly assertive, and somewhat arrogant and familiar. These
characteristics can lead to misunderstanding and conflict.
The Chinese have different ideas about the organization of negotiations. They attach great impor-
tance to building informal relationships in preparing for negotiations. During business meetings, Chinese participants are attentive to two things: gathering information about the subject matter and about the
negotiating partners, as well as building a “spirit of friendship”. These characteristics can lead to misunderstanding and conf lict. The Chinese have different ideas about the organization of negotiations. They
att ach great importance to building infor mal relationships in prepari ng for negotiations. Du ring busi ness
meetings, Chinese participants are attentive to two things: gathering information about the subject matter and about the negotiating partners, as well as building a “spirit of friendship”.
These actions are of particular importance and driven by Chinese cultural traditions and values.
In this situation, only a tolerant attitude towards each other, mutual understanding and a willingness
to adapt to such a situation can contribute to rational, effective interaction between representatives
of different business cultures.
6.4. Social adaptation and integration individuals in society and groups
Problems of adaptation and integration of migrants are on the agenda of all countries, since every
seventh inhabitant on the planet is a migrant and has to adapt to a new environment. The largest number of migrants is labor migrants who come from countries with high unemployment. As a rule, they
come from eastern regions of the planet, whose culture sharply differs from the culture of the countries to which they moved.
Specialists note that the psychological state of a migrant in the process of adaptation passes through
three stages:
The first stage is “Honeymoon”, when acquaintance with a new culture, its achievements or rep-
resentatives generates optimism, high spirits, confidence in successful interaction.
The second stage is “Culture Shock”. It is a period of collapse of hopes, when a positive emotional at-
titude is replaced by depression, confusion and hostility. Shock occurs first of all in the emotional sphere.
The most important role is played by such social factors as non-adaptation and rejection of new customs,
style of behavior and communication, pace of life, changes in the material conditions of life, infrastructure of life (intensity of street traffic, social contrasts, noise, bright advertising, etc.) and values.
Symptoms of culture shock can be very different: they can manifest themselves in psychoso-
matic disorders, general anxiety, and depression. Culture shock has not only negative consequences. Modern researchers regard it as a normal reaction, as part of the normal process of adjusting
to new conditions.
45
The third stage involves the development of different strategies of behavior. In one case, it
is “adaptation”, when a realistic assessment of the situation is formed, there is an adequate understanding of what is happening, the ability to effectively achieve their own goals. In another case, it
is “escape” — complete rejection of the new culture and the inevitable in this case retreat, escape
in both figurative sense (“going into yourself”) and in the direct, physical sense.
Consequently, we can consider the chain of stages as follows: honeymoon — anxiety —
habituation — biculturalism — adaptation — integration.
Migrants experience some difficulties and barriers in the process of adaptation:
– the feeling of inability to accept the new culture and reluctance to integrate into the new envi-
ronment;
– very difficult working and living conditions which hinder adaptation;
– the spread of anti-migrant sentiments in society;
– lack of a consistent state policy on migration issues.
J. Berry, a psychologist known for his work on immigrant and indigenous adaptation after inter-
cultural contact, presented his paper on migrant acculturation and adaptation. Depending on the combination of conditions, J. Berry identified four acculturation strategies: assimilation, separation, integration, and marginalization.
Assimilation occurs when people do not want to preserve their cultural heritage and identity
and completely dissolve into a foreign cultural environment.
Separation means that members of an ethnic minority deny the majority culture and retain their
ethnic characteristics.
Marginalization means that the migrant does not identify with either the ethnic majority culture
or the ethnic minority culture. This can result from a lack of opportunity (or interest) to maintain
a cultural identity (often due to forced or imposed cultural loss). It may also result from a lack of desire to establish relationships with the surrounding society (due to rejection by the dominant culture
or discrimination).
Integration occurs when both the dominant society and migrants have a mutual interest in pre-
serving cultural heritage and identity, and, at the same time, there is a need for daily interaction with
other groups.
There are three forms of adaptation:
1. Psychological: absence of psychological problems (anxiety, depression, psychosomatic symp-
toms), high self-esteem, high level of life satisfaction.
2. Sociocultural: social success, for example, at school or at work, absence of behavioral prob-
lems (truancy, stealing).
3. Intercultural: positive mutual relations, absence of prejudice and discrimination.
How well do migrants adapt? Studies show that migrants’ adaptation is different, depending on
a number of factors. The main ones are:
1. Length of stay: It takes time to find a successful and appropriate place in the dominant cultur-
al society.
2. Social support: social interaction, encouragement. Assistance services are important to achieve
positive adaptation.
3. Acculturation strategies: acculturation strategies are directly related to adaptation.
4. Discrimination (both personal and systemic): such negative actions reduce the possibility
of achieving the first two factors of adaptation.
Relevant programs and plans that define the main directions and means of adaptation and integra-
tion are developed at the state and local levels.
In 2020, the European Commission presented a new European Union (EU) action plan for the inte-
gration and inclusion of migrants in the host society for the period 2021–2027. EU countries perceive migrants as a valuable resource, the proper use of which will contribute to sustainable development.
The Russian government has approved the State Programme “Implementation of State Nation-
al Policy” in 2017. The State programme includes the following subprogrammes: “All-Russian civil
46
identity and ethno-cultural development of the peoples of Russia”; “Russian language and languages of the peoples of Russia”; “Indigenous small peoples of the Russian Federation”; “Socio-cultural
adaptation and integration of migrants in the Russian Federation”; “Prevention of extremism on ethnic and religious grounds”. Priorities of the programme: preservation and development of the ethno-cultural diversity of the peoples of Russia, creation of conditions for social and cultural adaptation
and integration of migrants in groups, harmonization of national and inter-ethnic relations.
Summary
1. Social groups are the building blocks of societ y, linking individuals to one another and perform-
ing a variety of tasks.
2. Primary groups are small and personality-oriented, secondary groups are goal-oriented.
3. The size of the group is also very important because it determines the nature of interaction
in the group.
4. Individuals judge groups as “thei r own” and “strangers,” and in this way they define group iden-
tity and satisfy their sense of belonging.
5. People use reference groups to form attitudes to other groups and make evaluations their be-
havior.
6. Social adaptation is a necessary condition for an individual’s existence in an ever-chang-
ing reality. An individual or group has to adapt to a new social environment, its requirements
and conditions. The faster this happens, the more successfully the individual integrates into
the socio-cultural environment, finds a place and a desired status in the group for further life
and self-actualization.
7. The problems of adaptation and integration of migrants remain relevant in connection with the
increasing migration and the formation of a multicultural environment of groups and organizations.
Think about and answer these questions
1. What social groups play a decisive role in the process of personality formation?
2. What types of large social groups do you know? List them and give a description.
3. What forms of adaptation of an individual to a new social environment exist? Describe them.
7. CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND INTERCULTURAL INTERACTION
As a result of studying this material, you will learn:
– in what directions the processes of expanding cultural diversity are and how it is expressed;
– what are the features of intercultural interaction in the multicultural environment of the
organization;
– how and why intercultural barriers arise;
– what are the ways to overcome intercultural communication barriers.
Key words: cultural diversity, system of values and norms, cultural lag, multicultural environ-
ment, communication barrier.
7.1. Key directions for expanding cultural diversity
The modern world is culturally approaching, this is due to increasing globalization and unification
of cultures, and however, on the other hand, the world is becoming more diverse and complex.
Human cultures are very diverse. Along with the emergence of human society, cultures also arose.
Since people belong to the same biological species, their biological and social needs are universal, therefore, we can talk about the existence of cultural universals. Researchers have counted more than 60 cultural universals: family and marriage, kinship, the prohibition of incest, sports, holidays, body decoration, etc. However, these universals manifest differently in every culture. People create different forms
of families; build kinship relationships in different ways. The prohibition of incest in different cultures
covers different degrees of kinship. There are ethnic sports, traditions, rituals, and holidays. Differ-
47
ent cultures have formed different value-normative systems, somewhat similar (universal values and
norms), somewhat different (ethnic, group values and norms).
Cultural diversity is as essential to society as biological diversity is to wildlife. It expands the pos-
sibilities of choice for each person, is one of the sources of development, enrichment of individual
and group life, and provides a full-fledged intellectual, emotional, moral and spiritual life.
Culture is not a static phenomenon, but a process of constant development and change. Science in-
terprets these processes in different ways. In classical theories (N. Danilevsky, O. Spengler, A. Toynbee, and others), cultural dynamics was characterized as progressive linear, phase, cyclic, wave, circular, or explosive movement. In contrast to traditional views on the nature of these processes, the
postmodernist paradigm sees dynamics not as growth or development with a directional character,
but as some kind of chaotic phenomena that do not have a definite vector.
Nevertheless, we will try to identify the main directions of the ongoing cultural changes.
Under the influence of globalization processes, a global culture is being formed — i.e. the num-
ber of cultural universals increases. Contacts between countries are expanding, turning into flows
of goods, information and people themselves.
1. Global economy: the flow of goods. Multinational corporations are spreading all over the
world, putting the same brands of goods on the market. Walking the streets of Beijing, Mexico
City or Amsterdam, we see people dressed in the same clothes: jeans and T-shirts, we hear American pop music.
2. Global communication — satellite communication allows people to immediately learn about
events taking place on the other hemisphere of the globe in real time.
3. Global migration — mass f lows of people rush to the regions in search of a better life. The num-
ber of migrants in the world in 2020 amounted to 281 million people.
These international ties enhance the similarity of world cultures, but one must take into account
the fact that a person’s cultural affiliation manifests itself at the level of the unconscious. Listening
to the music of another nation or buying American-made jeans, a person does not change his cultural
and ethnic identity. Cultural diversity is preserved, moreover, it is enhanced.
Let us single out the main directions of the formation of cultural diversity:
1. Informatization and the expansion of the use of digital technologies lead to the expansion
of information links between regions, countries, peoples, linking them into a single information
field. As a result, contacts and mutual influence of different socio-cultural systems are intensified, which leads to changes in material culture, norms, customs and beliefs, that is, to acculturation. Technique and technology are ahead of the development of such an area of spiritual culture
as the value-normative system, which does not have time to assimilate these changes. American
researcher W. Ogborn called this discrepancy cultural lag or cultural delay, which refers to the
fact that some elements of culture change faster than others. There is a delay in the development
of non-material culture compared to material, in particular technology. For example, some tribes
of New Guinea, Oceania, South Africa, having mastered computers and telephones, retain traditional elements of culture: wild forms of initiation, cannibalism. Such cultures that have not entered the path of humanization in a timely manner are doomed not only to economic, technological
and political in general, cultural lag. These phenomena enhance the diversity of existing cultures
on the globe.
2. Mass migration leads to the settlement of representatives of different ethnic groups in different
territories next to each other. People are forced to gradually adapt to new conditions and change their
identity. However, the complete assimilation of the settlers does not occur, they turn into a new specific cultural community, influencing the culture of the recipient country. Consequently, the culture
of both groups is changing, gradually giving rise to a new cultural complex.
3. Significant changes due to rapid technical and technological development lead to the complica-
tion of society, its social structure, new social groups and communities (professional, leisure) appear,
respectively, new subcultures arise with their own value-normative range and behavior patterns. Such
today are new urban communities (youth, professional, sports and other subcultures).
48
Consequently, in the era of globalization, cultural diversity does not disappear, it moves from tra-
ditional ethnic forms to the level of new group behaviors (manners, style, clothing, language and lifestyle features).
In an increasingly diverse society, the challenge is to ensure harmonious interaction and aspiration
for coexistence between individuals and communities with a pluralistic, diverse and dynamic cultural identity at all levels of their existence.
7.2. Intercultural interaction in a multicultural environment
In the most general definition, “intercultural interaction” as a type of social interaction is the com-
munication of people representing different cultures. The Russian researcher G.A. Avanesova notes:
“The interaction of cultures is a special kind of direct relations and connections that develop between
at least two cultures, as well as those influences, mutual changes that appear in the course of these relations”
qualities, areas of activity, values of one and another culture, the generation of new forms of cultural activity, spiritual guidelines and signs of people’s way of life under the influence of impulses coming from outside.
fore, we can give the following typology of types of intercultural interaction in areas:
environment);
interest groups or as subjects of state power);
and races);
population, local and alien groups);
ple and immigrants, representatives of various ethnic groups, ideological views, religious affiliations, young people and representatives of the older generation, employees with different education
and qualifications, which makes it necessary to establish tolerant relations in the team. Interaction
should be aimed at preventing, removing intercultural barriers, resolving intercultural conflicts in the
process of joint work.
action: persuasion, contagion, imitation, suggestion. In intercultural interactions, these methods are
of particular importance, as they pursue the goal of achieving and establishing tolerance.
tional spheres of the individual. The process of persuasion is often an explicit or implicit discussion
of two or more persons, the purpose of which is to achieve a unity of understanding of each other, respect for the point of view of the other and, if necessary, making concessions. Persuasion is necessarily a process of interaction or a dialogic process. It is in the process of dialogue that one can come
to an understanding of each other’s position.
tion and interaction, during which a certain mood, impulse is transmitted not through consciousness
*
. Of decisive importance in the processes of interaction of cultures is the change in the states,
Intercultural interaction is carried out at different levels:
1) interpersonal interaction;
2) intercultural interaction in small groups;
3) intercultural interaction in large groups.
Social interaction, including intercultural interaction, is possible in any sphere of society. There-
– professional (re pre senta tives of the sa me or dif fere nt pr ofes sions int era ct in t he same profession al
– political (individuals oppose or cooperate as representatives of political parties, social movements,
– demographic (including contacts between representatives of different sexes, ages, ethnic groups
– family-related (between members of the same family belonging to different ethnic groups);
– territorial-settlement (collision, cooperation, competition between migrants and the indigenous
– religious (contacts between representatives of different religions, as well as believers and atheists).
The vast majority of modern organizations are multicultural. Here there are indigenous peo-
All numerous situations of human interaction are carried out through four main ways of inter-
Persuasion is a way of inf luencing an individual or a group that affects both the rational and emo-
Contagion is defined as a way of psychological impact on a person in the process of communica-
*
Аванесова Г.А. Взаимодействие культур // Культурология. ХХ век. Словарь. — Санкт-Петербург: Университет-
ская книга, 1997. — номер страницы?
49
and intellect, but through the emotional sphere. Contagion is more of a group phenomenon. The constructive effect of contagion is manifested in the strengthening of group cohesion, and is also used
as a means of compensating for the lack of organizational cohesion of the group. Thus, contagion
with enthusiasm can be observed in professional activities, i.e., if people are united by a common
cause, then the successes of some infect others, causing the latter to be interested in common activities. For example, in the case of the prevalence in a multicultural team of an individual or group that
demonstrates innovative behaviors aimed at success, migrant workers can become motivated to learn
and improve their skills.
Imitation is aimed mainly at the reproduction by the individual of certain external features
of behavior, manners, actions, deeds of other people. There is external and internal imitation. Internal imitation manifests itself intuitively. For example, an individual imitates a person or group that
is referent to him, expressing this with his voice, gestures, manner of communication, and clothing. In other words, the individual perceives the cultural traits of another automatically, without
noticing it himself. Internal imitation is manifested externally. A teenager imitates idols — representatives of some subculture. An immigrant, in order to quickly integrate into a new environment,
imitates the lifestyle and behavior of representatives of the indigenous population. Such imitation
is natural. External imitation, coming from consciousness, can be thought out, aimed at achieving
some desired results.
Suggestion is the psychological influence of one person on another or others. The essence of sug-
gestion, as emphasized by the Russian researcher B.F. Porshnev, is that if you have complete and unconditional trust of the listener to the speaker, then the words of the second evoke in the first those
very ideas, images and sensations that the speaker has in mind, and the complete clarity and unreservedness of these evoked representations with the same necessity requires action, as if these representations were received by direct observation or knowledge of the hearer himself, and not through another
person. When suggestion occurs, the perception of information containing ready-made conclusions,
then, on this basis, motives and attitudes of a certain behavior are formed.
The nature of social interaction in an organization depends on the organizational culture. In a mul-
ticultural organization, the organizational culture is heterogeneous, it is possible to single out the prevailing type and several explicitly or latently existing ones. The task of the organization’s management is to form an organizational culture that would create a favorable creative environment for all
employees.
The construction industry is a multicultural area. The industry is replenished due to the low-
skilled labor of migrants from Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and other countries. Consequently, the organizational culture of construction organizations is even more heterogeneous, it is distinguished by
a large number of organizational subcultures that are isolated from each other. Rules, norms and values, role expectations, which form the core of organizational culture, are mastered by ordinary workers superficially, groups of migrant workers are isolated, and their subcultures are not built into the
culture of the organization. Industrial enterprises of the construction profile are characterized by
a high degree of spatial differentiation. Due to the specifics of the functioning of the industry, the interaction of management employees and migrant workers is based on formal requirements and in imperative categories.
In such a situation, it is difficult to achieve high motivation and devotion to the organization
from the employee. Disrespect, disregard for the interests of migrants can become an insurmountable obstacle, since the assessment of events in the organization, attitude towards people, distribution of tasks, attitude towards the method and timing of the task, payment can be different for
different cultural groups. According to objective estimates, migrants work 1,5 times more than
Russians — the working week of migrants lasts almost 60 hours, while Russians work 40 hours.
Meanwhile, migrants do not receive half of what they actually ear n. The study of the organizational culture of construction organizations and the purposeful formation of such a model that would
form equal intercultural interaction is an important task for the leadership of construction organizations in Russia.
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