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The constructive functions of any conflict benefit both sides. They help to:
– eliminate all or part of the contradiction between the interlocutors;
– make a quick and qualitative assessment of the individual psychological traits of those involved
in a conflict situation;
– reduce psychological tensions;
– act as a source of personal or relationship development;
– improve performance;
– the individual to assert himself or herself.
The destructive functions of a conflict are manifested in polarisation and unquestioning judgments, a desire to emphasise differences in the positions of the parties, a desire to impose one’s own
solution without thinking about the interests of the opponent, and the departure from addressing the
original problem towards escalation.
Ultimately, any interpersonal conflict can be resolved sooner or later; interpersonal conflicts need
to be managed.
4.2. Methods to resolve interpersonal conflict
4.2.1. Communication techniques for conflict reduction
If a person notices that he or she is in a conflict situation, it is worth considering how to mitigate
and reduce the emotional intensity so that he or she can discuss the problem in a calmer state of mind
and perhaps find a way out.
Relieve stress. The opponent may have a negative attitude and has a strong argument to prove his
or her point. If you find some truth in his (her) accusations and agree with them, it will be difficult for
the person accusing you to remain angry. This does not mean that someone should trespass on principles. It is important to recognise the right of the other person to have their own opinion on the issue at
hand, in order to move on to the stage of finding a solution. An indicator of a strong personality can
be seen as the ability to contain immediate reactions and emotional displays in order to achieve important goals and resolve conf lict.
Empathy. When showing empathy, the person tries to put oneself in the other person’s shoes,
to feel it as the other person feels. Above all, it is worth showing your opponent that his or her intentions and approaches are understood by others. To express empathy, paraphrase your opponent’s statements. For example: “I understand that you feel that you can no longer rely on this person in the way
that you used to”.
Study. Ask about how the other person feels and thinks. Sometimes people just misunderstand
each other. Maybe no one intended to affect the person’s interests and feelings or even to be respectful of them. It is important to take a detached stance and not get caught up in subjectivity. Connecting with the person you are talking to is an essential element of trust. When contact
is established, it can be said with confidence, then the people involved are immersed in an atmosphere of mutual understanding, respect and trust. You need to identify the problem you are concerned about and express it in a simple and clear way. Clearly state the action that leads to a particular consequence.
Self-messages. Take responsibility only for your own motives and actions, not those of others, expressing this in phrases called “self-messages”.
The self-messaging technique is not meant to change the other person’s behaviour. Self-messages
are used to make sure that the other person hears and understands you. The self-messaging technique
helps to get rid of unnecessary emotions. Self-messages contain personal pronouns, usually starting
with: I’m not waiting, I’m annoyed, I’m interested to know, etc.
Stroking. Say nice things about the other person. Emotional stroking is a metaphorical name, the
person spend his or her energy, time helping the other persons and they in return bear their costs.
When the stroking is about evenly divided, all is well. But when the scale tilts heavily to one side,
things get out of hand. Resentments, conf licts and irritations arise.
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Even if a conflict occurs, if certain rules are followed, it has every chance of being resolved quickly and effectively:
1. Show respect for your opponent. Regardless, in most cases, people deal with conflicts with people they know well or are in regular contact with. Therefore, to avoid further embarrassment, apologies and discomfort in dealing with this person, you should not treat them in an insulting or demeaning manner.
Demonstration of emotional restraint. There is a general tendency that conflict situations with-
2.
out affective burden are resolved more quickly and do not leave an unpleasant residue. Moreover, it
is possible to maintain a minimally positive relationship with the other party to the confrontation. In
important disputes, going emotional over an individual’s aversion to his or her opponent is seen as
a sign of insensitivity and bad manners. It also does not enhance a person’s reputation at all.
3. A focus on problem-solving. In conflict situations, people often forget where it all started, the
subject of the dispute. In their emotional state, they forget the core of the dispute, which remains unresolved or untouched. The focus should be on developing the best ways to resolve the dispute and using participatory techniques to reach a mutually satisfying compromise. In this way, you can achieve
mutual understanding with your family, friends and colleagues.
4.2.2. Ways of managing interpersonal conflict according to K.U. Thomas and R.H. Kilman
When you are in a conflict situation, in order to solve the problem more effectively, you need
to choose a certain way of behavior, taking into account your own behavior, the behavior of other
participants in the conf lict, as well as the nature of the conflict itself. K.U. Thomas and R.H. Kilman
identified five typical strategies (ways) of behavior in conflict situations.
The way anyone behaves in a conflict is determined by several parameters: the extent to which one’s
own interests and those of the other party are satisfied, the desire to act proactively or to avoid solving
the problem, the desire to stand firm or to make concessions, the propensity to act cooperatively.
Graphically, this is represented by the Thomas-Kilman grid (tabl. 2).
Table 2
Methods of behavior of a person in conict
Level of focus
on the interests
of the opponent
High Accomodating Collaborating
Medium Compromising
Low Avoiding Competing
Low Medium High
The ways of conict resolution
Level of focus
on self-interest
A conflict situation can be resolved by any of the five ways described by K. Thomas: competing (rivalry), avoiding, collaborating, accomodating (concession), compromising. The choice of the
ways depends on the situation of interaction, the interests of the parties, their attitude to the object
of the conflict.
Based on the proposed model, there are five ways to regulate the conflict:
Competing (rivalry). Conflict resolution by force, as a method characterized by great personal
1.
involvement and interest in resolving the conflict, but without taking into account the opinion of the
opponent. It’s a “win-lose” way. To use this way, you should have power or physical advantages. This
can in some cases help to achieve individual goals.
The main actions that correspond to competing are: rigid control of the opponent’s behaviour, exerting pressure, using tricks, provocation and manipulation, and unwillingness to engage in dialogue.
This method of conflict resolution is not appropriate at all if the individual wants to maintain a relationship with his or her interlocutor.
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2. Avoiding conflict (avoidance). The way is associated with a lack of personal perseverance
and a desire to discuss conflict resolution with others. A person tries to avoid discussing conflict issues and postponing a decision “for later”. In this case, a person does not defend his/her own interests, but at the same time does not take into account the interests of others.
The main actions that correspond to avoidance are demonstrative withdrawal, refusing to engage,
denying the importance of the conflict, deliberately slowing down the resolution process, and suppressing emotional reactions. This way of resolving conflict is only useful if you intend to continue
your relationship with your opponent.
3. Collaborating
as a way is characterized by a high level of concern for both one’s own interests
and the interests of the opponent. With this approach, both parties win. A special place in the choice
of this way is occupied by the subject of conflict. Collaborating is the most difficult, but also the most
profitable way to resolve the conflict. Only in this case will there be complete satisfaction of the parties from the joint decision made, the preservation of interpersonal relations and confidence that the
conflict is really resolved, and not hidden for the time being in a far corner.
This method has many advantages; it promotes trust and long-term interpersonal relationships
and mutually beneficial solutions. But not all conflicts can satisfy the basic desires of everyone involved, and sometimes the principle of cooperation can only complicate the situation.
4. Accomodating (concession). A person, making a concession, sacrifices his/her personal inter-
ests in favor of the interests of the opponent. This may be due to psychological characteristics, inability and unwillingness to engage in confrontation, with an inadequate assessment of the subject of the
conflict, an underestimation of its value for oneself. In the second case, the concession is self-deception and does not lead to a resolution of the conflict. And sometimes a concession can turn out to
be a tactical step towards achieving the main goal — to give a little in order to win more. With all the
highlighted features of a concession, it is important to keep in mind that it is justified in cases where
the conditions for resolving the conflict are not ripe. In this case, it leads to a temporary “truce” on
the way to a constructive resolution of the conflict situation.
The main actions that are consistent with accommodation are agreeing to the opponent’s demands,
rejecting claims and showing flattery. This is appropriate when the subject of the conflict is not important to you and you want to maintain a constructive relationship with your opponent.
5. Compromising involves a moderate consideration of the interests of each party. With a compromising, none of the conf licting parties receives full satisfaction, each is forced to give in something. But the relationship seems to be preserved. The opinion that a compromising is the best solution to a conflict is quite common.
This is just a step towards finding an acceptable solution to the problem. This is fair to both parties
to the dispute but leaves the situation unresolved. Later on, it will be necessary to go back to the heart
of the conflict and find the best solution. In most cases, compromising cannot be seen as a means
to resolve the conflict.
In this way, both sides in the conflict benefit if they have managed to establish and develop cooperation, then their interests will be maximised. However, this way is the most difficult, since joint
decision-making requires desire, effort and time to resolve the conflict. It is collaborating that leads
to the optimal solution of the problem. Knowledge of these conflict resolution ways allows everyone
to consciously make one or another choice based on a specific situation.
Summary
1. Causes of interpersonal conflicts are both socio-psychological and personal. Interpersonal con-
flicts cover almost all spheres of human life.
2. The psychological direction in conflictology identifies the following basic concepts
of interpersonal conflicts: psychoanalytic interpretation (K. Horney), concept of satisfaction
of needs (K. Lewin), the concept of dependence on the situation (M. Deutsch).
3. The Thomas-Kilman model describes five ways of resolving interpersonal conflict, their advantages and disadvantages: competing, conflict avoiding, collaborating, accomodating, compromising.
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Think about and answer these questions
1. What concept is considered interpersonal conflict as a result of intrapersonal one?
2. What a communication technique is characterized by the following: appeal from oneself, which
allows you to take responsibility only for your own motives and thoughts, eliminates the need to take
a defensive position?
3. What is the name of a way of regulating conflict with an average concern for the interests
of each participant, in which each party is forced to make some concessions?
5. FORMS OF ORGANIZATION OF SOCIAL SPACE
As a result of studying this material, you will learn:
– that social space is a multidimensional space of social processes;
– that social institutions integrate society;
– that functions are different from dysfunctions of the institution;
– what is social stratification;
– what are the types of social mobility.
Keywords: social space, types of institutions, functions and dysfunctions, social stratification, so-
cial mobility.
5.1. Society as social space
Interest in the study of society can be found as early as Greek philosophy. There are many liberal arts
about society. The object of all is society, but the subject of study is different. Sociology, along with social psychology, ethnography, belongs to the social or behavioral sciences, since it is engaged in the study
of objective reality. Sociology and psychology have much in common. They both study the interaction
of the individual with other people. But psychology is focused on the study of the inner world of a person, explaining his behavior mainly by individual psychological characteristics. Psychology and sociology are two different approaches to the study of social behavior. Psychologists are interested in personal
behavior, while sociology is trying to find common features in the actions of individuals, identify types,
and discover patterns. Sociologists conclude that human behavior is influenced by social space and social
institutions. So, sociology studies the same object as other humanities and social sciences. But the difference between sociology and other sciences is that it studies society as a whole, as an interconnected, interdependent system. All spheres of society, all types of social behavior are analyzed.
Sociology is seen as an intellectual response to specific social problems that arose during the transition from traditional to industrial and then to post-industrial society. Sociologists have tried to measure
and analyze social problems: poverty, unemployment, death rates, morbidity, crime, suicide. Sociology
is the analysis of the “social”, which can be considered at any level (for example, at the level of interaction between two individuals, at the level of social groups, large organizations or entire societies).
Social space is a multidimensional space of social processes, social relations, social practices, social
positions and social fields that are functionally interconnected. It is the environment in which social relations take place. This category was introduced into sociology by P. Bourdieu. He presents social space as
a set of fields of power interaction and movement of various types of capital (symbolic, cultural and economic). Society is divided into many autonomous “fields” with a special social life independent of the
will of the persons acting in them: the field of economics, the field of science, religion, art. The fields are
“game spaces” depending on the actual disposition of the habitus of individuals.
Each field has its own laws. The strategic victories of the “player” in various fields depend on his
ability to dispose of certain resources, which are called “capitals”. Different types of resources mean
economic, cultural and social capital. Economic capital is a broad concept that covers all types of material goods on the basis of property rights.
The social position of each contact is determined by the volume and quality of his capital. It is important to note that no one is born with a ready network of social contacts. Such a network must first
be formed and then maintained. This requires constant efforts, both conscious and unconscious, both on
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the part of individuals and on the part of entire institutions. These efforts are aimed at establishing and reproducing such social relations that could provide the possibility of obtaining benefits in the long term.
In his works, Bourdieu describes in detail and deconstructs such mechanisms: the exchange
of gifts and pleasant words, feelings of gratitude, duty and respect for elders. We usually do not critically follow these traditions, taking them for granted and natural, and do not think about the role they
play in maintaining the complex social structure of society.
In the future, speaking of cultural capital, I will have in mind precisely this form of it. Cultural capital can be opposed to economic capital, just as artists are opposed to businessmen. However,
these two forms of capital are closely related. The accumulation of cultural capital requires considerable free time, which can only be provided by possessing economic resources. The time during which
a young girl can engage in her education directly depends on how long the family can support her.
An initially high level of cultural capital is a necessary condition for its quick and easy accumulation. Therefore, children from families with a high level of cultural capital are in a much better position than their peers. Even with all the desire, people with an initially low level of cultural capital cannot effectively increase it.
They just don’t know what is valuable, where to focus their efforts and how best to do it. At the
same time, what exactly is considered valuable is decided by people who have the greatest cultural
capital. The intellectual elite itself determines what is considered real art and what is attributed to second-rate mass culture, thereby guaranteeing the safety of its elite status. This creates ideal conditions
for the reproduction of capital.
The transfer of cultural capital is the most hidden form of hereditary transfer of capital and therefore has the greatest weight in the system of strategies for the reproduction of inequality. Other forms
of transmission — more direct and visible — are more heavily censored and controlled. For example, the transfer of property by inheritance can be heavily taxed. There is nothing similar in the system of transfer of cultural capital.
In sociology, the theory of the social contract was not so important. T. Parsons tried to show that
the foundation of society is not a social contract and the state apparatus of coercion, but the existence
of a consensus on values and norms. Thus, the theory of consensus, reciprocity and exchange came
to replace the classical theory of the social contract in sociology.
In the theory of social exchange (Social exchange theory), a person seeks to maximize benefits
and minimize costs in the social space. Homans based his theory on the concepts of equilibrium, expected expectation, and distributive fairness in exchange. He gave priority to individual behavior.
He tries to explain the social interaction in small groups and the rewards they receive in proportion
to their costs and investments. Homans summarizes this system in propositions: success, stimulus,
and the deprivation-saturation proposition.
Blau’s analysis is very different from Homans’ version of the exchange theory. In Blau’s concept,
the individual and individual behavior play almost no role. Instead, various social facts come to the
fore. For example, Blau considered groups, organizations, collectives, societies, norms and values.
According to Blau, the binding mechanisms in complex social structures are norms and values. The
participant obeys the norm of the group and receives approval for this conformity; it is implicitly approved that such subordination contributes to the preservation of the group and its stability.
In other words, a group or collective entity enters into an exchange relationship with an individual. However, Blau’s concept of social exchange suggests taking into account only those actions that
are caused by or depend on the reward provided by other subjects — those actions that cease to be if
the expected reactions do not follow. He contributed to the idea of delimiting social and economic exchange, exchange and power.
At the same time, the behavior of the individual depends on what was the reaction of society to his actions in the past. Theories of social exchange focus on the social structures created by repeated exchanges
and the ways in which these structures both constrain and enable subjects to exercise power and influence.
Other related social processes considered within the tradition of exchange include interpersonal commitment, trust, equity, procedural and distributive justice, coalition formation, and collective action.
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5.2. Social institution
One of the forms of social space is a social institution. The word “institute” (from the Latin institutum — establishment, institution) appeared in ancient Rome. One of the first to offer a sociological
interpretation of the concept of “social institution” was the American scientist T. Veblen. He criticized
the assumptions of classical economics and drew attention to the involvement of individuals in institutions, and not just to the achievement of economic benefits. The social institution is used to describe
social practices that are regularly repeated over a long period of time, sanctioned and supported by
social norms and have a value in the structuring of society. Just like the concept of role, the concept
of an institution refers to established patterns of behavior, but the institution is considered as a unit
of a higher order, more general, including many roles. For thousands of years there has been a formation of social roles, formal and informal norms — that is, the formation of social institutions. Institutions are changing under external factors such as a pandemic, digitalization, deglobalization.
The social order depends on the existence of common, shared values. They are considered legitimate and binding and act as a standard for choosing the target of an action. The connection between
the social system and the personality system is achieved through the assimilation of values in the process of socialization. Values cannot be reduced to or explained by interests, biological needs, social
class. The most significant criticisms of this understanding of values are the following three:
– societies exist despite significant disagreements about values;
– values can be accepted pragmatically, not normatively;
– this understanding does not take into account the limiting effect of social structures.
Social norms are seen as collective representations of acceptable group behavior as well as individual perceptions of specific group behavior. They can be seen as cultural products (including values, customs, and traditions) that represent people’s basic knowledge of what others do and think they
should do. From a sociological point of view, social norms are informal agreements that regulate the
behavior of members of society.
Deviation or deviant behavior is behavior that goes beyond the norms accepted in society. This
is what society at the moment considers abnormal, i.e. to a greater extent, this is a social agreement, because the same actions are approved in some societies and not allowed in others. E. Durkheim introduced the concept of anomie in connection with the thesis that in a complex, changing
world (due to reforms, revolutions, crises, migrations), traditional standards and norms are destroyed.
Under these conditions, people experience anxiety, fear of uncertainty, confusion and disorientation
in choosing a course of action. Anomie can become one of the social factors influencing the predisposition to deviation.
Hacking is a dangerous digital deviation associated with a mental craving to hack the websites
of public and private organizations, as well as e-mail, correspondence, withdrawal and transfer
of funds stored in bank accounts. The hacker is developing multi-way combinations to deceive citizens. Hackers from different countries can temporarily unite in order to achieve a common goal that
is beneficial to the hacker community.
Digital and Internet fraud is another type of deviant behavior characterized by illegal actions related to extortion from citizens by fraudulent information about their financial accounts and savings.
Internet scammers call citizens’ mobile devices, while pretending to be bank employees, managers,
mobile operators, etc. Fraudsters, having the necessary technical knowledge in the field of digital
technologies, when dialing to a subscriber, make it so that the victim sees the bank number on his mobile device. We can say that Internet scammers can mislead citizens with fake numbers. When a person has confidence, he himself gives his card number and password.
The theory of stigmatization (i.e. labeling, stigmatization) is based on the assumption that no act
is in itself either criminal or normal. Those who represent the forces of law and order, or those who
can impose their moral attitudes on others, use labels to form categories of deviance and thus express
the structure of power in society. The rules are set by the rich for the poor, the elders for the younger, the ethnic majority for the minorities. For example, once a child is labeled as a bully, teachers will
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treat them as untrustworthy. Using the example of the political sphere, then rich countries (EU countries and the USA) can designate countries as poor and apply economic sanctions to them, which will
make these countries even poorer.
Within the framework of the main institutions, there are institutions of a more private order, for
example, in the sphere of the institution of politics, institutions of state power, political parties, armed
forces, etc. can be distinguished; within the framework of the institute of economics — the institute
of banking, the institute of trade, the construction industry, etc.
Institutionalization is the process by which social practices become sufficiently regular
and long-lasting to be described as institutions. This concept plays an important role in countering the
view that institutions are given and unchanging realities, pointing out that changes in social practice
lead both to the modification of existing institutions and to the emergence of new institutional forms.
The concept of institutionalization is associated with the position of role theory, according to which
people have a certain freedom to “develop roles” in their interaction with other people, and not just
follow prescribed patterns of behavior.
The characteristics of social institutions include:
– social functions — areas of useful activity implemented by a social institution;
– patterns of behavior — actions that individuals must perform to implement the functions of a so-
cial institution;
– codes — formal and informal norms that regulate relationships between individuals within the
framework of a social institution;
– ideology — a system of ideas aimed at substantiating the exceptional social significance of a giv-
en social institution, explaining to society the essence of its codes and symbols;
– infrastructure — material objects necessary for the functioning of a given social institution;
– symbols — phenomena of culture, designed to symbolize the belonging of individuals to a giv-
en social institution, its social purpose, the nature of relationships between people, etc.
The social system consists of four subsystems and four conditions are met in it:
– the system must be adapted to the environment, that is, it must be adapted to the characteristics
of human nature as a biological organism and as a person, to the characteristics of the human environment, to the characteristics of culture as a system of values;
– the system must be self-regulating, that is, when the environment changes, goals must be developed in the system — directions for changes in the structure and mechanisms for the implementation
of these goals should function;
– the system must be internally integrated, that is, stable links must be maintained between its elements, and the functioning of the elements must be coordinated;
– the system must be structurally stable, that is, the system must be reproduced as a model.
When studying social institutions, special attention should be paid to their social functions. Function is the role that social institutions contribute to the well-being of society. The functions of a social
institution can be divided into explicit and latent, universal and specific. Those functions of social institutions for the performance of which it was created are called explicit. Latent (hidden) functions
are the positive consequences of the implementation of explicit functions that were not programmed
by the creators of social institutions. For example, the United States and Europe rebuilt the institution of the economy on the principle of globalization, then they transferred part of the industrial production to China. This strengthened their state and economic positions (obvious function). But they
could not foresee that exactly 40 years after that, China would take second place in the world economy and the positions of the United States and Europe would become weaker (latent function).
From the universal functions, one can single out the functions of socialization, consolidation
and reproduction of certain social relations, integrative (promoting social cohesion), communicative, the function of broadcasting cultural patterns. But each institution also has its own specific
functions peculiar only to it. In addition to functions, dysfunctions of social institutions can be distinguished. Dysfunction is the harm that an institution causes to society by an unsatisfactory solution to the tasks set.
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The occurrence of dysfunctions is due to the following main reasons:
1. Social institutions are not keeping up with the rapid growth of social needs.
2. In a situation where a social institution is forced to take responsibility for meeting some new
social need, some time must pass before it learns to do it qualitatively. During this time, the activity
of the institute is often dysfunctional.
3. Dysfunctions may arise when any social institution tries to monopolize the satisfaction of all
or at least most socially significant needs. In historical experience, such attempts can be noted on the
part of religion, state or non-state political institutions.
Construction is a sphere of public life where numerous activities are carried out related to the design, construction, restoration and repair work. The construction industry has all the above features
of a social institution. At the same time, it is an integral part of the social institution of the economy.
The construction industry has specific features that hinder the growth of organizational changes:
– high material consumption of products, and the need for inventories;
– stationarity of the object;
– significant duration of the production cycle: the construction process lasts from several weeks
to several years;
– dependence on stochastic factors: weather conditions, variety of industrial relations, etc.
Therefore, any organizational and technical changes occur very slowly. In addition, their implementation is often hampered by inconsistent initiatives on the part of customers and contractors.
The construction industry performs extremely important social functions: meeting the needs
of citizens in housing; meeting the needs of the state in various civilian and military facilities; meeting the needs of various sectors of the economy in industrial and infrastructure facilities; environmental protection activities related to the construction of dams, reclamation facilities, etc.; stimulating
the growth of other sectors of the economy: transport (up to 30 % of transportation is construction cargo), the chemical industry (varnishes, dyes, linoleum, etc. used in construction), the forestry
and woodworking industries (lumber, parquet riveting, etc.), metallurgy (rebar, rolling), mining industry (sand, gravel, granite chips).
We can list construction dysfunctions: performance of work on unfavorable terms for clients (for
example, overestimation of the cost of work); appropriation of funds of participants in shared construction; “spot development”, eating up the social space of residents of neighboring houses; hiring
disenfranchised migrants, which lowers the cost of labor; late payment of salaries to staff.
It is advisable to look for ways to minimize dysfunctions in the construction sector in the following areas: 1) wide involvement of the public in solving urban planning issues; 2) reducing the level
of monopoly in construction; 3) strengthening of legal control in the field of construction; 4) involvement of sociologists to diagnose and optimize the social situation around the construction; 5) improvement of migration legislation.
5.3. Social stratification
Each society has its own structure in which social groups are interconnected, and relationships are
built between them. The social structure is based on the social division of labor, the existence of specific needs and interests, values, norms and roles, lifestyles and other signs of various social groups.
To describe the system of inequality between groups (communities) of people in sociology, the concept of “social stratification” is widely used.
The role of the social structure:
1) organize the company into a single entity;
2) contributes to the preservation of the integrity and stability of society.
Social stratification (from Latin stratum — layer, flooring and facere — to make) is a system that
includes many social formations, whose representatives differ from each other in an unequal amount
of power and material wealth, rights and obligations, privileges and prestige.
A stratum is a real, empirically fixed community, a social stratum, a group of people united by
some common social attribute (property, professional, level of education, power, prestige, etc.).
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Historical types of stratification systems:
1. Slavery is the only form of social relations in history when one person acts as the property
of another, deprived of any rights and freedoms. The form of the most rigid fixing of people in the
lower strata.
2. Caste is a social group in which a person owes membership solely to his birth. There is a detailed regulation in the activities of each caste.
3. An estate is a social group that has rights and obligations fixed by custom or legal law
and inherited. The rights and obligations of each class are determined by law and consecrated
by religion.
4. A class is a large social group that differs in its role in all spheres of the life of society, which
is formed and functions on the basis of fundamental social interests. Belonging to classes is not regulated by the authorities, is not established by law and is not inherited.
M. Weber singles out groups that are clearer and more significant for each person, which he
called status. The main criterion of status is wealth, which gives rise to social stratification. In turn,
he connects this indicator with the ownership of the means of production, and in general with the
market system, primarily with the labor market. Depending on the amount of income, the population is divided into the rich, occupying the top step, the wealthy — the middle, the poor — the lowest rung of the hierarchical ladder. M. Weber introduces another criterion of inequality — social
prestige. Prestige is the respect enjoyed in society by a particular profession, position, occupation.
The status respect received by individuals unites them into groups. Along with wealth and prestige, M. Weber names power as the basis of inequality. Both class and status positions are resources
in the struggle for power. Power holders form the elite of society, they are surrounded by privileges
and have wide access to social benefits. They determine the domestic and foreign policy of the state
in favorable conditions for themselves.
Many sociological studies have assumed that social class is the source of important social divisions. Recently, however, some sociologists have argued that for a number of reasons the division
into classes is not as important as before. Social divisions are increasingly based on different patterns
of consumption and can cross class divisions, causing class dealignment.
One of the important characteristics of any society is how the people of this society live: how they
eat, dress, what they do. In any society, there are always not only rich and poor, but also certain interconnected practices characteristic of them, which find their expression in the things consumed
and ways of behaving. Thus, the more educated and wealthy segments of society in the middle of the
20th century were characterized by preferences for champagne, golf and opera, and for workers —
beer, football and popular music. How and why such fairly stable patterns of behavior are formed,
and the concept of lifestyle is intended to provide an answer.
Lifestyle is associated with habitus. Fashion is a way of identifying a person with a certain social
group and at the same time a marker of belonging to it. Consumption as a holistic social phenomenon
can be explained by the theory of social meanings, since things are primarily social signs that line up
in a certain hierarchy in the process of classification and social differentiation.
The sociologist P. Sorokin wrote about social mobility, its principles, types, mechanisms
of implementation. He assumed that there is no society in the world that is characterized by
complete, one hundred percent closeness. In his opinion, even in caste systems there are exceptions. According to his definition, social mobility is understood as any movement of an individual or group from one social position to another. Presenting a typology of social mobility, he distinguishes two main types:
1) horizontal mobility, which he considers as a moment of transition, movement of an individual
or social group from one social position to another, lying on the same level (religious mobility, territorial, family);
2) vertical mobility, which he considers as a movement, the transition of an individual or group
in a vertical direction (down or up) from one level of the social hierarchy to another, associated with
a change in the individual’s social status (economic, political, professional, etc.).
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One form of horizontal mobility is migration. Migration is the movement of people from one region or country to another region or country. For example, labor migration from Central Asia to Russia in search of more profitable work.
The advancement of individuals through the channels of social mobility is regulated with
the help of social barriers and filters, i.e. a set of role requirements corresponding to a particular
place in the social system. It should be noted that not only individuals, but also social groups can
change their usual social environment and their position, moving down or up the socio-economic scale. The ways in which people move from one social group to another are called channels
of social mobility or social elevators. In open societies, there are a large number of social elevators. In closed societies, status change is not encouraged, there are barriers along the way. Consequently, social mobility is the promotion not only of an individual, but also the movement of entire groups. Therefore, they distinguish:
1) individual mobility — movement up and down or horizontally of an individual, regardless
of others;
2) group mobility — when large groups of people move. Group mobility introduces changes in the
structure of stratification, inf luences the ratio of the main social strata, and leads to the emergence
of new groups in the existing system of hierarchy.
The causes of group mobility are associated with profound changes in the socio-economic structure
of society, with a change in political priorities, ideological orientations, systems of values and norms,
which leads to a change in the very system of stratification. In this case, those political forces that
have caught the changes that have taken place in society rise “upstairs”. Factors of group mobility: social revolutions and interstate wars. Factors of individual mobility — the social status of the family,
place of residence, advantageous marriage. An example of individual mobility can be an individual
moving from a small city to a city with a population of one million.
Summary
1. Social space is a multidimensional space of social processes, social relations, social practices,
social positions and social fields that are functionally interconnected. It is the environment in which
social relations take place.
2. Social institution — social practices that are regularly repeated over a long period of time, sanctioned and supported by social norms and are important in the structure of society. Function is the role
that social institutions contribute to the well-being of society. Dysfunction is the harm that an institution causes to society by an unsatisfactory solution to the tasks set.
3. Presenting a typology of social mobility, he distinguishes two main types: horizontal mobility
and vertical mobility.
Think about and answer these questions
1. What is a necessary condition for the rapid accumulation of cultural capital?
2. Give examples of functions and dysfunctions in construction.
3. What form of mobility does migration belong to?
6. SOCIAL GROUPS
As a result of studying this material, you will learn:
– that society is made up of many social groups;
– that groups have certain characteristics;
– each person is a member of many social groups;
– all individuals are forced to adapt to the social group and integrate into it.
Keywords: group, primary group, secondary group, small group, large group, reference group, or-
ganization, social adaptation, integration.
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