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Файл:Philosophy sociocultural and anthropological aspects. Educational manual for students of medical universities
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71
7. How do subject and object interact in the process of
cognition?
Another important problem of epistemology is the question of
the interaction between man and the cognized world, or, speaking in
the language of philosophy, the problem of the relationship between
the subject and the object of knowledge. Already in antiquity, some
philosophers expressed some guesses about the nature of this
relationship. Thus, in the works of Empedocles, Democritus and
others, there is so-called "outflow theory". According to it, as if thin
films (images) are constantly separated from the surface of objects,
repeating the external characteristics of the thing, they enter the pores
of our sense organs and cause corresponding sensations.
However, the modern interpretation of this problem is
indicated in the works of Bacon and Descartes, the method of which
we have already mentioned. In modern times, the process of
cognition began to be considered an inseparable unity of subject and
object.
The object of cognition is usually understood in a broad sense
to mean what cognition is directed to — the material world (natural
and social) that surrounds a person and is included in the sphere of
human activity and their relationships.
In a large array of objects of knowledge, primary, secondary
and tertiary can be distinguished. The primary object of cognition
(and, accordingly, the final source of knowledge) is always a certain
part, a fragment of the material world. However, since consciousness
is formed in the process of reflection of primary objects, its images
appear, in so far as secondary objects of cognition (and, accordingly,
a secondary source of knowledge) arise. Consciousness and its
images act as such, and more broadly — all spiritual processes, the
spiritual world of people. Finally, we can talk about tertiary objects
of cognition — objects that are specially created and studied by
a person in the process of scientific and theoretical activity. These
include the concepts of "point", "ideal gas", "plane", etc.
Society is a special object of knowledge. Due to this, social
cognition, in particular, differs much less, in comparison with natural
science, in the standardization of the research language, in the
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absence of clear algorithms in research behavior, in the presence of
sufficient freedom to choose specific methods or means of solving
cognitive problems. In social cognition, to a greater extent than in
natural scientific knowledge, the personality of the researcher is
manifested with his life experience, with the peculiarities of his
vision of phenomena and their assessment, his thinking and
imagination.
One of the features of social cognition is that there is an
interaction of scientific research itself with everyday consciousness
("common sense"), with various extra-scientific forms of "practical"
value consciousness and cognition. All this suggests that society is
a special object of cognition.
The subject of cognition is an actively acting person, one who
cognizes things and phenomena.
The subject of cognition is a person, a social group, society as
a whole. In the process of cognition, the subject is objectified, i.e.
epistemological actions of the subject, aimed at obtaining knowledge
that adequately reproduce objective reality and are expressed
primarily in language.
The subject makes his own adjustments to the cognitive
process, at least in two directions: along the line of individual
subjectivity (when we attribute properties and qualities to objects of
knowledge in accordance with our needs and interests); along the
line of "collective" subjectivity (the subject always realizes his
cognitive interest in certain social conditions and bears their stamp).
It is impossible to abstract from these influences when highlighting
the object of cognition.
An important feature of subject-object relations is their sociohistorical nature. All other signs that distinguish science from other
forms of cognitive activity can be presented as depending on the
main characteristics and due to them.
In the very broad sense under subject of knowledge a person is
understood as a bearer of consciousness, which is characterized by
certain cognitive abilities (sensuality, reason, will, memory,
imagination, intuition, etc.). The realization of these abilities, in fact,
provides a person with the opportunity to cognize the world.
73
Thus, a person becomes a subject of knowledge only insofar as,
in the process of learning and socialization, he becomes familiar with
the cultural and historical heritage and assimilates a certain set
cultural traditions, social norms and values.
Practical tasks and questions
1. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F).
№
Statements
T
F
1.
One of the most important questions of
epistemology is the question of being
2.
One category of epistemology is the category of
object
3.
The second section of epistemology is devoted to
issues of scientific knowledge
4.
Epistemology is the next most important branch of
philosophy after ontology
5.
Socrates developed a dialogical method of
knowing the truth
6.
Socrates believed that the truth is stored in the soul
of every person
7.
Plato proposed the theory of dialectics
8.
Plato believed that fundamental truth existed in
physical world
9.
One of the 10 categories of Aristotle is the
category of space
10.
Knowledge in medieval science is always certified
by reason
11.
Francis Bacon proposed an experimental method
12.
R. Descartes proposed an experimental method too
13.
Deduction is such an action of the mind, by means
of which we draw certain conclusions from certain
premises, obtain certain consequences
14.
Kant believed that knowledge processes the
sensory impression into cognition
74
15.
Knowledge that does not depend on experience
Kant called Aposteriori knowledge
16.
A priori knowledge is knowledge that is inherent in
the human mind before any experience
17.
Apriori categorie of reason is Limitation
18.
A priori ideas of the mind is Realm of Ideas
19.
Hegel presents the mind as the ability to
comprehend and resolve contradictions
20.
One of the tasks of present epistemology is the
development of a universal language of science
21.
If scientists have no doubt that the world can be
known by the human mind, then this is the theory
of agnosticism
22.
Epistemological optimists believe that the source
of our knowledge is outside of us, it is objective
in relation to us
23.
Skepticism — a direction that questions the
possibility of knowing objective reality
24.
Materialists are most often Epistemological
pessimists
25.
Idealists are most often Epistemological optimists
2. Read pages 8 to 31 in Dupre's textbook and answer the
questions.
2.1. What arguments are there to support skepticism?
2.2. How are the ideas of skepticism related to the problems of
consciousness?
2.3. What criteria of knowledge were defined by the first
epistemologists?
2.4. How are ontological surveys and issues of epistemology
(dispute about universals) related?
2.5. What opinions exist as to how direct our perception of the
objects of the surrounding world is?
2.6. What is the difference between naive realism and
representational realism?
75
2.7. Who are solipsists? What are the advantages and
weaknesses of the position of J. Berkeley?
2.8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of
R. Descartes' method of methodical doubt? What is cogito?
2.9. What is the difference between analytical and synthetic
judgments? What is the merit of I. Kant in this matter?
2.10. Why is the problem of language so important for
epistemology?
2.11. What was the dispute between empiricists and
rationalists?
3. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F).
№
Statements
T
F
1.
Epistemological optimists admit that the world is
knowable
2.
Epistemological pessimists say that the source of
knowledge is the external world, the essence of which
is unknowable
3.
Empiricism is a direction in the theory of knowledge,
recognizing reason as a source of knowledge
4.
Rationalism is a direction in the theory of knowledge,
recognizing independence of rational knowledge from
experience
5.
Advocates of empiricism recognized sensory
knowledge as a mechanism for connecting the mind
with the material world
6.
Sensual and the rational cognition is two stages of
theory of knowledge
7.
The stone is warm. This is an example of
Representation
8.
If the stone lies in the sun, it heats up. This is an
example of Perception
9.
Worldly knowledge based on common sense and
ordinary consciousness
10.
Artistic knowledge is not connected with rational
thinking and even contradicts it
76
11.
Pre-scientific is proto-knowledge, deliberately using
conjectures and prejudices and distorting the idea of
reality
12.
One of the important problems of epistemology is the
question of the interaction between man and the
cognized world
13.
In the middle age, the process of cognition began to
be considered an inseparable unity of subject and
object
14.
The object of cognition is usually understood as the
material world
15.
The subject of cognition is an actively acting person,
one who cognizes things and phenomena
16.
A priori knowledge is knowledge that is inherent in
the human mind before any experience.
17.
The subject of cognition is usually understood in
a broad sense to mean what cognition is directed to
18.
One of the features of social cognition is that there is
an interaction of scientific research itself with
everyday consciousness
19.
An important feature of subject-object relations is
their socio-historical nature
20.
The subject makes his own adjustments to the
cognitive process only in one direction: along the line
of individual subjectivity
4. What is your position regarding the knowability of the
world? Explain your answer.
5. What is your position on the method of cognition? Explain
your answer.
6. What type of knowledge do you prefer? Explain your
answer.
77
References
1. Baudrillard, J. Xerox and Infinity. Touchepas, 1988. —
20 p.
2. Cozzo, C. What is analytic philosophy? — URL:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280841277_What_is_Anal
ytical_PhilosophyHeidegger. — M. 1889–1976 // The question
concerning technology, and other essays, Harper & Row, Publishers,
Inc, 1977. — 193 p.
3. Beaney, M. (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of the History of
Analytic Philosophy. — Oxford : Oxford University Press, 2013. —
207 p.
4. Nikolaeva, E., Khazieva, N. History and philosophy of
science: common problems / aut.-comp.: E. Nikolaeva,
N. Khazieva. — Kazan : Publishing House of the Kazan University,
2017. — 224 p.
5. Rorty, R. Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature, Princeton
University Press, Princeton, 1979. — 401 p.
78
TOPIC 4. HUMAN AS A PHILOSOPHICAL ISSUE
Content of the topic:
Human and the world in the modern philosophy. Natural
(biological) and public (social) origins in human.
Anthroposociogenesis and its complex nature. The meaning of life:
death and immortality. Human, freedom, creativity. Human in the
system of communications: from classical ethics to discourse ethics.
After the topic completion students should:
1) know:
- stages of development of philosophical anthropology;
- main issues of philosophical anthropology;
- concepts of "human", "individual", "personality";
- theories of anthroposociogenesis;
- establishment of the subject of philosophical anthropology in
conditions of the Anthropological Turn in philosophy;
- main approaches to the concept of human nature and essence
of human;
- differences between concepts of "essence" and "existence";
- specificities of psychoanalytical anthropology;
- specificities of existential anthropology;
- ethical problems of human life;
2) able to:
- reproduce the studying material of philosophy in definitions,
judgements and conclusions;
- use philosophical and socio-political terminology;
- navigate in philosophical systems easily, understand their
basis;
- practise tolerance to another views and points;
3) have:
- skills of logical construction of public speech (message,
report) structure;
- skills of abstraction in order to select the significant features,
specificities and relationships in studying issues and doctrines;
79
- skills of reasonable written presentation of their own points of
view;
- skills of comparing, generalizing, systematizing of
information for further goal and task setting;
- skills to demonstrate the ability and availability for dialogue,
perception of alternatives and participation in the discussions about
social and world-view issues.
Main lines
1. The problem of human nature and human life in
philosophy.
Philosophy as a science deals with such categories as being,
consciousness, knowledge, truth. All these questions are related to
the attitude of a person to his life, the arrangement of his being, the
construction of his life world, and its ordering. In other words, all
sciences exist in order to create a well-formed understanding of
human existence. In addition, philosophy reflects on such forms of
human life as mythology, religion, art, which in its basic relationship
to reality has not yet been determined by science.
We treat human existence as something known (we don't see
human being as a problem). We live our being. It is our own life
which we manage in a variety of situations. We experience it when
we see the death of a loved one and the joy of the birth of a child. We
experience cloudless childhood or a hard lesson at the top of life and
in old age.
We feel ourselves as the creators of our own life, but at the
same time we are aware of the uncontrollable power of elemental
natural powers within our body. Human existence is not an external
object we can oppose to our mind and make it an independent object
of consideration in order to describe it. There is nothing that would
be closer to us. Each person can participate in human life’s
discussion and has an inalienable right to his opinion. But, can such
a description be logical and verified?
And every word of each individual person about being enters
into the composition of being. Human being will never be a thing
80
that exists indifferently to what people say and think about it. Selfinterpretation belongs to being, forms an important part of it. Every
thought expressed by mankind, people, race, and even by individual,
has a meaning for everyone, gives everyone an example of a possible
interpretation of significances being.
The self-interpretation of being cannot be separated from
general being. The more strictly we fix this moment, the more
unrealistic it seems to be an attempt to make a philosophically
reliable judgment about human existence. There is variety of selfinterpretations. Each historical and cultural period has its own
interpretation of being, each century has life mood and life
experience. Can someone be mistaken in the interpretation of his
being? Gives him a wrong self-interpretation?
For example, the ancient Greeks perceived themselves as legal
citizens and politicians, and looked at slaves and barbarians from
above. This was not a manifestation of empty arrogance but
expressed an inner conviction that they have the knowledge of being
in its integrity and completeness. Can we say that they were wrong?
We said that human existence is ourselves. It is not the kind of
subject we are opposed to. We stand in being. It is the most famous
of all known but also the most mysterious. M. Heidegger introduces
the special term Dasein ("here-being") to denote a special state of
human reality and human involvement in the world. Heidegger starts
from the fact that we have a certain existential intelligibility without
even thinking about the meaning of being. We always approximately
understand that everything around us exists in some sense and
therefore we always deal with beings.
The problem of human existence is a problem of human
meaning. This is discussion about how we give significance to
certain objects around us and why some things are more significant
for us than others. For example, why do people think gold to be
a more expensive metal than iron?
Why is a person moral: therefore has some ideas about good
and evil, right and wrong, about who is a true woman and a true man,
etc. In other words, in order to be recognized as a person, we need to
comprehend the situations of life. For example, in order to be in
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