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Файл:Motivation of labor activity. Study aid
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of which it is included as a component. If the program of action is fully
formed, but there is no immediate impulse to start activity, then this state
is an incentive to activity. Trigger afferentation, which forms the “trigger”
motive, translates it into actual activity.
The fifth zone of the motivational field — reinforcement centers —
interacts with the three previous ones, reinforcing (strengthening or
weakening) the processes occurring in them.
A number of foreign psychologists examine the stages of the
motivational process within the framework of the Gestalt approach. In this
case, we mean a cycle of contact, the essence of which is the actualization
and satisfaction of needs during a person’s interaction with the external
environment: the dominant need appears in the foreground of
consciousness as a figure against the background of personal experience
and, satisfied, dissolves again in the background. In this process, up to six
phases can be distinguished: sensation of a stimulus — its awareness —
excitement (decision, emergence of an impulse) — beginning of an
action — contact with an object — retreat (return to the original state).
With all this, the noted phases can be specifically differentiated or
superimposed on each other.
Consequently, the process of motivation was studied by some
researchers from the point of view of a structural-psychological approach
(A.G. Kovalev, A.A. Faizullaev), by other researchers — according to a
biologized functional, largely reflexive approach (D.V. Kolosov), by
others — according to the Gestalt approach (J.-M. Robin). There are
positive aspects in each of the approaches, but a complete picture of the
process of motivation and the stages of motive formation does not appear.
The stages of motivation, their number and internal content mainly
depend on the type of stimuli under the influence of which the process of
forming intentions as the final stage of motivation begins to unfold.
Stimuli can be both external (physical stimuli, signals) and internal
(unpleasant sensations that come from internal organs). But incentives can
also be demands, requests, a sense of duty and other social factors. They
can influence the nature of motivation and methods of goal setting. For
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example, O.K. Tikhomirov discovered that given (accepted by a person)
and independently formed (optional) goals differ in the nature of the
connection that is formed between the goal and the motive (need): in the
first case, the connection is formed from the goal to the motive, and in the
second — from the need to the goal.
Types of motivation
Motivation can be classified in several ways.
For example, E.P. Ilyin chose the following parameter for
classification — the conditionality of the motivation process. He proposes
a division of motivation into extrinsic (motivation that is determined by
external conditions and circumstances) and intensive (internal motivation,
which is related to personal dispositions: needs, attitudes, interests, drives,
desires, in which actions and deeds are performed “of their own free will”
subject).
A.A. Ruchka and N.A. Sakada proposed the following classification
of motivation depending on the methods of motivation: direct (implying a
direct impact on a person) and indirect motivation (based on the influence
of external factors).
Direct motivation includes normative and coercive.
Normative motivation involves a direct impact on the employee’s
personality in order to change his value system, and therefore the
formation of a desirable system of work motives. This influence occurs
using the following methods and means: persuasion, suggestion, infection,
agitation, demonstration of example, etc. If this method of management
influence is successful, then the management goals are internalized by the
object of management and become its own goals. This means that personal
interest of staff in the effective results of their own work, in the successful
production activities of their team and enterprise, is formed and then
observed.
Compulsory motivation is a method that is based on the threat of
deterioration in the satisfaction of any needs of employees in the event of
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their failure to comply with the requirements of the subject of
management. In practical life, it is implemented on the basis of orders,
regulations, instructions, requirements, and negative sanctions.
In terms of operational management, forced motivation has a number
of advantages. Firstly, it does not need depth of penetration into the
subjective world of workers. To implement it, it is necessary to use basic,
elementary needs that are essential for all people. Secondly, it is as
efficient as possible. Thirdly, this method of influencing personnel does
not require the cost of any real life benefits.
Nevertheless, there are also a number of negative aspects of a
psychological and social nature that are characteristic of this managerial
method of forming work motives. Powerful motivation can cause in
workers, in addition to the desire to eliminate the threat from the subject of
management, progressive fear of losing achieved results in work. This can
be the cause of both constructive activity and conflicts, neuroses,
violations of labor discipline, and staff turnover.
Basically, this method of influence is aimed at the strict
subordination of workers to the subject of management, its goals and
requirements, and this can bring certain negative consequences: forced
motivation imposes restrictions on the possibilities of self-realization of
workers, restrains their creativity, and does not contribute to the
development of innovative activity of subordinates. Consequently, forced
motivation in itself is not the optimal managerial way of creating the
desired work motives.
Stimulation involves influencing external circumstances with the
help of benefits — incentives that encourage a person to a certain type of
behavior. Stimulation, in comparison with methods and means of direct
motivation, differs in a fact, that a person’s behavior is regulated by
influencing not the individual himself, but the conditions of his life, the
circumstances external to the individual that give rise to his interests and
needs. In this case, there is a situation of personal choice, which
employees implement depending on their personal preferences. In order to
influence this system of preferences in the direction necessary for
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management purposes, the subject of management tries to make changes in
relation to the object of management in external circumstances. For this
purpose, such incentives are used as material and monetary (salary,
bonuses, additional payments, allowances), material and non-monetary
incentives (production and technical, organizational, sanitary and hygienic,
temporary, household, etc.), non-material (praise, honorary titles,
government awards, etc.).
Many psychologists have come to a consensus on distinguishing two
types of motivation and the corresponding types of behavior:
1) external motivation and, accordingly, externally motivated behavior;
2) internal motivation and, accordingly, internally motivated behavior.
External motivation is a construct for characterizing the
determination of behavior in situations where the factors that initiate and
regulate it are outside the individual’s “I” or outside behavior. It is enough
for the initiating regulatory factors to become external, and all motivation
acquires an external character.
For example, a student became more conscientious about completing
his homework after his parents promised to buy him a bicycle. Working on
homework in this example is an externally motivated behavior, because
focus on lessons and intensity (in this case, conscientiousness) are set by a
factor external to the study itself: the expectation of receiving a bicycle.
All his friends signed up for the sports section, and so did our
student. For him, going to the section is an externally motivated act due to
the fact that his initiation and direction are completely under the control of
his friends, i.e. outside the student’s own “I”. You can imagine, for
example, that friends did not attend the section. Most likely, our externally
motivated friend will no longer go there either. It is also generally
accepted that extrinsic motivation is primarily based on rewards,
incentives, punishments or other types of external stimulation that initiate
and direct desired behavior or inhibit undesirable behavior.
The most vivid conceptualization of this type of motivation is
considered in behaviorist theories and theories of instrumentality.
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Intrinsic motivation is a construct that reflects this type of
determination of behavior when the factors initiating and regulating it
come from within the personal “I” and are completely located within the
behavior itself. Intrinsically motivated activity has no rewards other than
the activity itself. People engage in an activity for its own sake, rather than
to achieve any external rewards. Such activity is an end in itself, and not a
means to achieve some other goal.
If an employee returns home and excitedly says that very interesting
issues were discussed today and he wants to receive additional information
on this issue so that he can take part in the discussion tomorrow, then he is
thereby showing an example of internally motivated behavior. Here, the
focus on searching for information stems from the content of the activity
itself and is associated with the interest and pleasure that accompany the
process of learning and discovering new things. If everyone is in a hurry to
enroll in a karate-do section because it has become fashionable (an
example of external motivation), and Ivanov goes to the city section
because that’s the only place he’s interested, then we can talk about
internally motivated behavior.
To explain this type of motivation, many theories have been
developed: the theory of competence and efficiency motivation, the theory
of optimal activation and stimulation, the theory of personal causation, the
theory of self-determination, the theory of “flow”.
A large number of studies have shown that external and internal
motivation can significantly energize behavior and significantly change its
direction, in other words, have a decisive influence on its determination.
But are the consequences of these two types of motivation the same for
cognitive processes, emotions, mental health and other aspects of
personality? What type of motivation needs to be cultivated if we want not
only a momentary increase in the intensity of behavior or an immediate
change in its direction, but are interested in long-term and harmonious
personal development? To find answers to these questions, let us turn to
the experimental results (tab. 1).
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Table 1
The influence of external and internal motivation
on behavior and mental processes
Extrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation
Tendency to continue
Extrinsically motivated behavior will
only cease when the external
reinforcement disappears
Intrinsically motivated behavior will
continue for quite a long time if there are
no visible rewards
Preference for task complexity and scope
Subjects prefer simpler tasks. They only
do what is necessary to earn the reward
Prefer more difficult tasks (optimal
difficulty)
Degree of algorithmization of activities
Has a negative impact on cognitive
flexibility; facilitates the performance of
activities that require an algorithmic
method (multiplication of multi-digit
numbers, memorization of simple
geometric figures, paired memorization,
word recognition in tachistoscopic
experiments); greatly degrades the
quality and speed of solving heuristic
problems
Has a positive effect on cognitive
flexibility; facilitates the implementation
of activities that require a heuristic
method (all types of creative tasks that do
not have a predetermined algorithm:
complete an electrical circuit, continue a
pattern of numbers, etc.)
Creativity
Suppresses creativity, increases tension,
reduces spontaneity
Promotes creativity
Emotions
Negative emotions predominate when
interacting with others
Promotes pleasure from work, evokes
emotions of interest and joyful
excitement
Self-esteem
–
The predominance of internal motivation
increases self-esteem
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According to tab. 1, each type of motivation has both its pros and
cons, which have different effects on mental processes. Intrinsic
motivation has the most positive effect on both cognitive processes and the
personality as a whole. External motivation has an advantage when solving
particular problems. The presented data require a study of internal
motivation and a comprehensive analysis of factors both facilitating and
hindering its manifestation.
Motivation can be individual or group. It has been established that
individual and group needs of a person may not always coincide. What
may motivate the work of an individual employee is not always a
motivating factor for a group of employees. The reason for this
phenomenon lies in the individuality of people who have different
worldviews, upbringing, education, and attitudes towards material and
spiritual values. Therefore, in order to establish the relationship between
individual and group motivation, it is necessary to solve the problem of
combining individual and group goals and interests.
1.3. MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS
You can often hear the assumption that people can only be motivated
by money, that money is the most important motivator. But not only
human resource specialists, but also many managers disagree with this
kind of assumption. For example, K. Ferling, a Swedish specialist who is
both a management consultant and a senior executive at the Swedish
company SKF, which has a staff of 200 thousand people working in
Sweden and in dozens of other countries beyond its borders, cites the
following facts. If, in the process of studying people’s motivation, what
motivates them was discovered, then in almost all countries this list was
the same. Invariably, the first place among motivating factors was given to
the team, the work group that a person belongs to. Second place is how
interesting the work he does is to him. Third place was occupied by such
motivating factors as the ability to control one’s work and the level of
independence in work. Wages were only in seventh place and took first
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place only in those countries where it was a matter of survival.
Unfortunately, Russia at this time is one of such countries.
The successful application of forms of material incentives makes it
possible to provide some benefits, however, the motivational potential of
the so-called soft components of effectiveness — friendship, partnership,
teamwork — is quite often more important.
K. Ferling, conducting a survey of workers in different countries of
the world, asked their opinion on what motivates their director. Although
workers often did not see their directors at all, they almost unanimously
said that directors were primarily motivated by money. When, during the
research, the general director of the company was asked what motivates
him, he named factors that did not differ much from the factors named by
the workers, namely the opportunity for development at work, the team,
the board of directors. And all top managers’ salaries were in eleventh,
thirteenth, fourteenth places. However, when asked what motivates
workers, all directors said money.
The assumption that “everyone is motivated by money but me” is the
biggest misconception. It is precisely this fact that prevents many
managers from using in their activities a wider range of means of
influencing the motivation of subordinates. People have developed a
stereotype that money is the most important lever for motivating
employees. And it is difficult to imagine that money can be a powerful tool
that destroys staff motivation. But in many Russian organizations this is
exactly what happens: people are not paid extra for their work, and
employee dissatisfaction with the payment for their work is a widespread
phenomenon.
If an organization wants to achieve high performance indicators of its
personnel, then for this it is necessary that the necessary conditions for this
be created in the organizational and working environment. These may be
conditions that have a demotivating effect of an insufficient level of
remuneration and form the motivation of workers that would maximally
position them for high labor achievements. People will be more satisfied
with their work if it matches their values, needs, attitudes and expectations.
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It's even better when the work environment exceeds employee
expectations, for example in terms of salary, career prospects, or
relationships with management. Of course, in a particular case, the factors
that determine the high level of work motivation of personnel may be
different.
In order for managers to have the opportunity to expand the “range”
of non-monetary means of influencing employee motivation, they need to
take a closer look at those means that are inextricably linked directly with
the management process itself (goal setting, assessment and control,
information, etc.). Non-monetary methods of influencing the motivation of
subordinates, used by managers, are presented in tab. 2.
Table 2
Non-monetary means of influencing motivation
Type of motivation
Description
Organization of work
The variety of skills needed to get the job done.
Completeness of tasks. The significance and
responsibility of the work.
Providing autonomy to the employee.
Timely notification of work compliance with established
requirements
Moral stimulation
A wide range of non-material incentives used by both the
manager himself and the administration of the enterprise
(verbal gratitude, certificate of honor, photo on the honor
board, etc.). The motivating potential of this tool is
reduced with a formal approach
Individual approach
when choosing
incentives
The manager’s assessment of the dominant needs of a
given employee and the choice of methods of influence
that would best suit the characteristics of his motivation
Setting goals
Setting clear goals and objectives for the employee that he
needs to solve within a certain time. Specificity,
attractiveness and feasibility are key requirements for
motivating goals
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Type of motivation
Description
Assessment and control
Various forms of control over the work of the performer,
carried out by the manager himself, and assessment of his
work results and work behavior
Informing
Timely and complete satisfaction of employees’ needs for
information that is meaningful to them
Climate in the work
group (team)
Values and priorities put into practice in the interaction
between the manager and team members.
Traditions and rules that determine the work behavior and
interaction of organizational members
Management practice
Quality of management, compliance of management style
with the most important situational variables
(characteristics of employees, tasks, time constraints, etc.)
Disciplinary measures
Correct choice of location (public or in the manager’s
office).
Timeliness of disciplinary action.
Proportionality of the severity of punishment to the
gravity of the offense.
Explanation of reasons
Appeal to the most
significant values for the
employee
Self-respect.
Financial well-being.
Responsibility to the team (team).
Interests of the company (enterprise, organization).
Career prospects.
Family interests, etc.
Money is designed to motivate people to work hard. Wages must also
solve several other important problems, namely attracting and retaining
good employees. If there are problems in paying employees competitive
wages (in comparison with other organizations also operating in the same
sector), this can lead to serious difficulties in attracting and retaining
qualified personnel. In addition, with the help of money, the company
shows the employee that it values his work and professional achievements.
In order to better understand the tasks that need to be solved to
increase employee motivation to work, you need to look at the situation
through the eyes of the employee himself. In what case will he have a
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