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Файл:Motivation of labor activity. Study aid
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• develop tools for diagnosing the characteristics of work motivation
and designing labor incentive systems for personnel of organizations;
3) own:
• methods of diagnosing motivation;
• psychological methods of work to increase the motivation of the
organization's personnel.
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CHAPTER 1. ESSENCE AND CONTENT OF MOTIVATION
IN AN ORGANIZATION
1.1. THE ESSENCE OF MOTIVATION IN AN ORGANIZATION
In the history of mankind, for a very long period of time, the main
organizational form was the state, and the dominant organizational means,
which ensured the coordination of the individual goals of ordinary
members with a common goal, was cruel and outright violence. Purposeful
adjustment of individual goals and their subordination to someone else's
will was achieved by the continuous threat of cruel punishment or even
death.
In the modern world, a person, on the one hand, has much more
freedom than his recent ancestors. He does not need to independently take
care of the reproduction of material resources that he needs in everyday
life. On the other hand, modern man is completely dependent on other
people and organizations, without whose services and products he would
not be able to live for even a few weeks. People, not noticing this fact, are
completely dependent on them every minute.
In our time, only an organization has the opportunity to provide the
majority of people with a means of subsistence and create conditions for
their normal life. In other words, a modern organization is not only a
community of people who are united by a common goal, but it is also a
social entity that ensures the satisfaction and formation of individual
needs. These directly or indirectly include not only the basic needs for
food, warmth and safety, but also the needs for friendship, respect and
development. Nowadays, there is no need, as in the old days, to drive
people into an organization. People themselves are forced to join it,
subordinate their will to it and follow a common goal, because without its
participation, without its resources and means, people will have little hope
of satisfying most of their needs.
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Moreover, the more urgent the individual’s need is and the more the
need is connected with the very existence of a person, i.e. with his basic
needs, the greater the person’s dependence on the organization and the
easier it is for it to change and direct his goals in a certain specific
direction. Therefore, when joining an organization, an individual has to
agree with restrictions on his freedom, even taking into account the fact
that such restrictions are not very pleasant for him. This is what basically
makes it possible to change the behavior of members of a modern
organization in the required direction without direct violence or pressure.
Consequently, the “peaceful” coordination of personal goals with a
common goal is possible due to the fact that the organization does not
simply force the individual to fulfill an external goal alienated from him,
but it has something necessary or desirable for the individual. These can be
objective material and financial resources (wages, bonuses, housing
conditions, services, etc.), and organizational and psychological resources
(symbolic, status, developmental, etc.), which are the subject of employee
needs. These needs encourage people to change their behavior in the
direction specified by the organization.
When studying power as a basic organizational process, issues of
work motivation are not a relatively independent area of study of the
reasons that determine the direction of individual behavior, but a search for
non-violent means of adjusting personal goals, focused on the general
goals of the organization through the targeted satisfaction of various types
of employee needs. It turns out that motivation is increasingly becoming
the main and main instrument of organizational power, its most civilized
manifestation.
According to most experts, one of the main problems that
organizations have when it comes to motivating employees is the use of
archaic and overly simplified ideas about what exactly makes people do
their jobs well and conscientiously. The idea that a pay raise or the threat
of dismissal can solve all behavioral problems is not only outdated, but
even wrong. Nevertheless, even in large foreign organizations, managers at
best know the theory of A. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and F. Herzberg’s
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two-factor theory. These theories are already more than 40 years old. But
there are a very small number of managers who have heard, for example,
about expectancy theory, although it is also almost 30 years old.
Today, managers can hardly afford to be guided by rather simplified
and often too outdated ideas about the art of motivation. Ensuring high
performance through adequate employee incentives is too important a
management function to be ignored.
In the most general understanding, motivation can be defined as a
process that determines the energetic side and direction of behavior. Such
an internal process guides a person’s behavior and determines the choice
he makes from a possible set of behavioral alternatives. In other words,
this process encourages him to behave in a particular situation in a
particular way. Thus, having knowledge about the motivation process, a
manager will be able to much better understand the behavior of his
colleagues and subordinates, as well as expand the ability to analyze his
own behavior. Despite its importance and relatively long history,
motivation research in the behavioral sciences faces many challenges.
They arise mainly because it is not possible to observe motivation
externally.
When viewed objectively, motivation is a hypothetical process that
can only be judged indirectly, by the behavior of people, analyzing
changes in their activities, or through a survey, determining their needs
and goals. Behavior can be aimed at satisfying several needs at once, and
the same motive can be implemented in different behavioral reactions.
Judging motivation by activity is also not always correct, because a
person’s activity depends on his knowledge, skills, abilities and, moreover,
for example, on how he understands and perceives the requirements that
are placed on him. A thorough explanation by the subject of the reasons
for his behavior may not help, because people often have difficulty
establishing the motives for their actions, and besides, the motives
themselves may be unconscious. Some motives may even be socially
taboo.
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However, despite all these difficulties, primarily in identifying and
measuring motivation, the concept of motivation itself is extremely fruitful
for analyzing the behavior of people in organizations. A lot of research has
been done to substantiate or reject motivational theories and to find the
most optimal methods of motivating people to more productive and
satisfying work. One of the objectives of this chapter is to consider
motivational theories developed by psychologists to explain the motives of
people's behavior in organizations, as well as to identify opportunities for
their practical use for effective management of an organization.
The term “motivation” was first used by A. Schopenhauer in the
article “Four Principles of Sufficient Reason” (1900–1910). Further, this
term firmly entered into psychological use in order to explain the reasons
for the behavior of humans and animals.
Motivation (from the Latin moveo — I move) is a set of internal and
external driving forces that encourage a person to carry out an activity;
they set the boundaries, forms and degree of activity of the activity and
give this activity a direction focused on achieving certain goals. In this
regard, all definitions of motivation can be considered in two aspects: as a
set of factors or motives and as a dynamic formation, as a process,
mechanism. For example, in accordance with the scheme of
V.D. Shadrikov (1982), motivation is associated with the needs and goals
of the individual, the level of his aspirations and ideals, conditions of
activity (both objective, external and subjective, internal: knowledge,
skills, abilities, character) and worldview, beliefs and orientation of the
individual, etc. Based on these factors, decisions are made and intentions
are formed. Nevertheless, in both cases, motivation shows a secondary
formation and phenomenon in relation to the motive. In addition, in the
second case, motivation is a means or mechanism for the implementation
of already existing motives.
According to the judgments of V.I. Kovalev, if we talk about external
motives and motivation, we mean either circumstances (current conditions
that influence the effectiveness of activities, actions), or any external
factors that influence decision making and the strength of the motive
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(reward etc.), also mean that the person himself attributes a decisive role in
making a decision and achieving a result to these factors, as is the case
with people with an external focus of control. In this case, we can talk
about externally stimulated or externally organized motivation, implying
that circumstances, conditions, and situations become important for
motivation only when they become significant for a person to satisfy a
need or desire. In this regard, external factors must be modified into
internal ones in the process of motivation.
A general description of the motivation process can be given by
defining the concepts used to explain it: “needs”, “motives”, “goals”.
Needs represent the state of a person who needs an object necessary
for his existence. Needs are the source of human activity, the reason for his
purposeful actions.
Motives represent a person’s motivation to act, which is aimed at a
result (goal).
Goals are desired objects (or their state) that a person strives to
possess.
Motivation as a management function can be implemented through a
system of incentives, i.e. any actions of a subordinate must have positive
or negative consequences for him in terms of satisfying his needs or
achieving his goals.
Studying the team allows the leader to create a motivational structure
through which the team will be trained in the right direction.
The initial link, the first “pole” of the mechanism is the need, which
shows the need for a person for certain goods, objects or forms of
behavior. Result of satisfying needs:
1) satisfaction;
2) partial satisfaction;
3) lack of satisfaction.
But in order to assess and measure work motivation, it is necessary to
have more reliable criteria. Three main indicators of staff work motivation
can be identified, measured through a questionnaire survey:
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• satisfaction with one's work;
• interest in the final results of your work;
• commitment to your organization.
The extent to which these components of work motivation are
expressed in an employee will determine his attitude towards professional
work and work behavior.
It is necessary to consider in more detail such an indicator as the
commitment of employees to their organization. Commitment to an
organization cannot be considered only as a kind of attachment to the place
of work, when a person works in one place for a long time. First of all, a
person’s readiness to accept the goals of the organization and follow them
in his work, this is the attitude towards dedication in work and a loyal
attitude towards his enterprise. Nowadays, it is the commitment of staff to
their enterprise and what share of the total number falls on committed staff
that are studied by HR specialists and representatives of senior
management as the basis of competitiveness and business efficiency.
People who are dedicated and passionate about their work are, of course,
more productive than workers who have a bad attitude towards their
enterprise or those who are thinking about changing jobs.
1.2. STAGES OF THE MOTIVATIONAL PROCESS
A lot of researchers have said that the motivational process needs to
be considered stage by stage, but still from different positions.
The stage model of moral decision making was developed by
S. Schwartz. The value of the model he proposed lies in a thorough
assessment of the situation that leads to the desire to help another person,
one’s capabilities, the consequences for oneself and for the one who needs
help. If the stimulus does not turn into a motive, then it either “was not
understood” or “was not accepted.” This means that a possible variant of
the emergence of a motive can be presented in this way: “the emergence of
a need — its awareness — the “meeting” of a need with a stimulus — the
transformation (usually with the help of a stimulus) of the need into a
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motive and its awareness. During the emergence of a motive, various
aspects of the incentive (for example, encouragement) can be assessed:
significance for this subject and for society, fairness, etc.” [5].
For example, a feeling of hunger or thirst can evoke in the mind an
image of an object that could satisfy this need; under the influence of this
image, an impulse to action (motivation) appears, correlating with the
person, the external environment (situation) and with moral and
psychological attitudes personality. This process of correlation, carried out
with the help of thinking (analysis of conditions, means and ways of
solving a problem, taking into account the consequences), leads to setting
a goal and determining a plan of action.
There are four stages of the motivational process.
The first stage is the emergence and awareness of the impulse. Full
awareness of the impulse contains awareness of the objective content of
the impulse (what object is needed), action, result and options for
implementing this action. A conscious impulse can be needs, drives,
inclinations and any phenomenon of mental activity (image, thought,
emotion). Nevertheless, the motivating aspect of a mental phenomenon
may not be realized by a person and may be in a potential (rather, hidden)
state. But still, motivation is not yet a motive, and the first step towards its
formation is awareness of the motivation.
Speaking about motive, just awareness of the motivation is not
enough, but behavior can be determined by one conscious motivation. This
kind of situational behavior can often lead to regret about what was done,
since a person then understands that the motivational sources of the action
were not entirely adequate to the values and attitudes accepted by the
person.
The second stage is “acceptance of motive.” Under this somewhat
illogical name of the stage (If until now we could not talk about a motive,
then what can be accepted? And if it already existed, at the second stage
we should talk about making a decision — “to do or not to do”) implies
internal acceptance motives, i.e. its identification with the motivational and
semantic formations of the individual. The illogicality of this stage lies in
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the fact that if a conscious impulse is not accepted, then it is not yet a
motive, but if it is a motive, then it is already an accepted impulse.
In other words, at the second stage, a person, in accordance with his
existing moral principles, values, etc., decides how significant the
emerging need, desire is for him, and whether it is worth satisfying them.
It is no coincidence that we are talking about the properties of acceptance
or meaningfulness of a given motivational formation. A motive as a unit of
the considered phase of the motivation process can acquire not only
motivation, awareness, direction, but also a meaning-forming function.
The third stage is the implementation of the motive, during which,
in accordance with specific conditions and methods of implementation, a
change in the psychological content of the motive can occur. At the same
time, the motive acquires new functions (satisfaction, satiation of needs,
interest), which leads to the transition to the next stage of motivation —
consolidation of the motive, and then it becomes a character trait.
The fourth stage is the actualization of a potential motivation,
implying a conscious or unconscious manifestation of the corresponding
character trait in conditions of internal or external necessity, habit or
desire.
A.N. Zernichenko and N.V. Goncharov identified several stages in
motivation: formation of a motive, achievement of an object of need and
satisfaction of a need. When talking about the mental implementation of
these stages, one could agree with this. Nevertheless, for the authors, the
second and third stages are interconnected with real action, which is why it
is hardly fair to directly associate performing activity with the process of
motivation itself (more precisely, to take it for motivation).
In developed by D.V. Kolosov’s concept of need-based behavior
essentially does not use the concept of “motivation”; instead, the author
uses, not very successfully, the concept of a motivational field, the
function of which is ultimately the formation of a motive and the
satisfaction of the individual’s needs. The motivational field, according to
D.V. Kolosov, is a functional organ of the brain, the tasks of which are to
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organize needs and choose the optimal way to achieve a state of
satisfaction as the ultimate goal of behavioral reactions.
The formation of an incentive, which is focused on satisfying the
need, is carried out, according to the opinion of D.V. Kolosov, a number of
successive stages (zones). Need arousal first falls into the zone of need
standards, then into the zone of representation of needs, into the zone of
processing of need arousal and the zone of forming a program of action,
and at the final stage into the zone (centers) of reinforcement.
In the zone of need standards there are kernels of needs and models
of the required result. The latter have a stable part and a dynamic part,
which develops in the course of the development of needs.
In the zone of representation of needs, need arousal from the nuclei
of all needs can be accumulated. The function of this zone is, firstly, to
“switch” the too accumulated excitation of one need to another, which has
access to the executive system. This is the excessive satisfaction of one
need with the help of another. Rather, we can talk about an inadequate way
to discharge the emerging need tension (“letting off steam” without
satisfying the need itself) and about switching to another activity so that
dissatisfaction and disappointment from the previous one is “repressed.”
Secondly, the function of the representation zone is to delay the need
excitation for its further processing in the subsequent zone, because the
latter should not “choke” from the excessive excitation entering it.
In the zone of processing of need arousal, a convergence of
information flows occurs: need arousal coming from the zone of
representation of needs; arousal, which carries information about possible
objects of need satisfaction; excitement, carrying information about the
conditions accompanying success (based on previous experience). In this
zone, according to D.V. Kolosov, need arousal is doubly specified or tied
to reality, consistent with it in terms of the subject and the method of
achieving it. Such specification, in his opinion, is the process of forming a
motive, and what is obtained as a result is precisely the motive.
In the fourth zone of the motivational field — the zone of forming an
action program — the motive can be transformed into executive activity,
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