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Файл:Culturology. Educational manual
.pdf
21
cultural meaning and are ‘simply themselves’<…> By this definition, animals are
excluded from participating in processes of the semiosphere. These distinctions
establish a high semiotic threshold between the semiosphere and the nonsemiotic
universe. The biosphere, for example, is not only characterized by the absence of
language, but also by the lack of communication: ‘Outside the semiosphere, there
can be neither communication, nor language’, is one of Lotman’s axioms <…>
In the cultural conceptualization of semiotic loci and spaces in binary
opposition, the boundary between the two spheres in opposition turns out to be of
special relevance. In Lotman’s cultural semiotics, it is the boundary that separates a
culture from nonculture or the culture of alterity. It separates the territory of one’s
own, good and harmonious culture from its bad, chaotic, or even dangerous
anticulture. It is a frontier between an inner and an outer space. To draw borders of
this kind is a universal law of culture, according to Lotman, for ‘every culture begins
by dividing the world into ‘its own’ internal space and ‘their external space’.
The boundary does not only separate, it also functions as a filter which
determines the flow of the messages into the semiosphere from without, a process
which requires ‘translation’ and ‘semioticization’ of the non-semiotic signals that
come from beyond the frontier: ‘Belonging simultaneously to the internal and
external space, the semiotic border is represented by the sum of bilingual translatable
‘‘filters’’, passing through which the text is translated into another language …
outside the given semiosphere’ <…>
The semiosphere is a semiotic space divided once more into two, since it
comprises signs that derive from two kinds of systems, primary and secondary
modeling systems. A modeling system, according to Lotman, is a code or language
with signs to represent ‘the entire sphere of an object of knowledge, insight or
regulation.’ A natural language is a primary modeling system in the sense that it is a
means of representing the world. Secondary modeling systems, by contrast, ‘have a
natural language as their basis and acquire supplementary superstructures, thus
creating languages of a second level’. The latter systems are created in mythological,
religious, legal, ideological, or literary texts”
8
.
Questions
Elementary level:
1. What is the semiosphere?
2. What two spheres of the human mind does Lotman describe? How does he
explain it?
8
Winfried Nöth. The topography of Yuri Lotman’s semiosphere // International Journal of Cultural Studies.
2015. Vol. 18(1). Р. 11–26.
22
3. What can serve as mediators between the two spheres of the human mind?
4. What two sphere of our Universe does Lotman identify?
Intermediate level:
1. Give an example of semiotic sphere.
2. Give an example of nonsemiotic sphere.
3. What functions do borders execute in culture? Is it possible for culture to
exist without borders?
4. What two modeling systems does Lotman identify? By what does every
system represent?
Advanced level:
1. Don`t you consider Lotman created too sharp opposition between culture
and nature as semiotic and non-semiotic reality? Think if we can find examples of
using signs in nature by animals?
2. Give an example of organizing of spatial sphere in with we can see some
semiotic models.
3. Do you agree that there is the lack of communication in the nature?
Substantiate your answer.
The structure of culture
Question
Why we can`t attribute fine arts, architecture and sculpture to the material
culture? Why do we need the third structure of culture — artistic culture?
23
The typology of culture
The typology of culture is a method of scientific knowledge, which is based on
the division of sociocultural systems and objects and their grouping by means of
description and comparison. Various grounds can be used for the typology of culture.
Typological grounds are a set of indicators, which includes significant
indicators of the studied cultures.
According to the level of development two types of culture are identified:
traditional and innovative.
According to social types of culture mass and elite cultures are identified.
Natural factors influence the formation of the main activity of society. So, we
can identify agricultural and cattle breeding cultures.
According to religion we can identify Christian culture, Muslim culture,
Buddhist culture, Hindu culture and other.
The territorial location affects the formation of the worldview, socio-economic
and political structures. In this case, it is appropriate to talk about large regions, far
exceeding one state or one ethnic group. For example, such regions can be: the
Mediterranean, the Pacific basin, Central and Western Europe, Central Asia and
others. By regional type, cultures can be divided into eastern and western. The
division into ‘East — West’ allows us to determine the features of the methods and
ways of knowing the world, value orientations, to characterize political institutions and
economic structures, to highlight the main features in art. The Western type of culture
involves European and American cultures, the Eastern type the cultures of the countries
of Central and Southeast Asia, the Middle East, North Africa.
Questions
1. What are the special features of agricultural and cattle breeding cultures? In
what way does nature determine such features? Use Internet to find an answer.
2. Identify types of the culture you belong to. Justify your answer.
The most important functions of culture
There are several functions of culture. Among them the most important are:
- the humanistic function contributes to the formation of the moral image of a
person (develops the abilities of a person, his physical and spiritual qualities);
24
- the transforming function encourages a person to create his own world,
gives a person skills, technologies for the successful transformation of nature, society
and himself;
- the epistemological function is manifested in the fact that culture
concentrates the experience and skills of many generations of people, accumulates
knowledge about the world and thereby creates favorable opportunities for its
knowledge and development;
- the informational function allows culture acts as a way of transferring social
experience from generation to generation, from one country to another. It is no
coincidence that culture is considered the social memory of mankind;
- the communicative function is expressed in the fact that culture gives people
the means of communication, which is carried out with the help of signs and sign
systems;
- the integrative function lies in the fact that culture unites peoples, social
groups, states, etc. The basis of the unity of such groups are: a common language, a
common system of values and ideals, as well as common norms that regulate the
behavior of people in society;
- the regulatory function is represented in the system of norms and
requirements of society for all areas of human life. Through these norms, culture
regulates, coordinates the actions of individuals and human groups, develops optimal
ways to resolve conflict situations, and makes recommendations when solving vital
issues;
- the axiological function is manifested in the fact that culture forms certain
value needs and orientations. The criteria for such an assessment are moral and
aesthetic values.
Mentality
All knowledge, value systems, norms and so on by every distinguish culture
find their reflection in the mentality.
Task: read the following text about mentality and answer questions after it.
“The history of mentalities, represented by such scholars as Jacques Le Goff,
Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Fernand Braudel and Lucien Febvre, turned its gaze on
the everyday life and thought of centuries past <…> The concept of mentality
established by the French Annalists refers to the thought and experience of the
ordinary man and woman, to everyday, collective cultural representations. In
referring to collective mental contents it is comparable to the concept of world view
25
favored by folklorists, even though the latter is, in emphasizing the cognitive aspect,
more limited in scope. Carol Ginzburg, in speaking of mentality, has drawn attention
to the hazy, subconscious dimension of world view: the archaisms, emotional and
irrational elements embedded in it. The concept is most commonly used to refer to
attitudes to life, value and emotions, and to collective modes of thought and
experience which guide everyday activities <…>
As a heuristic concept, mentality seems to still occupy a key role in the debate
on nationality and national identity today. This was conspicuous during the process of
integration taking place in Europe in the early 1990s, in which examination of
national state projects and of the relationship between the national and the European
was one of the leading trends in the humanities and social sciences <…>
While the concept of mentality has proven helpful in referring to the broad
domain of world view and folk thought, values and emotions, on the other hand it has
been found wanting in the examination of specific thematic topics, since it is abstract
and only vaguely definable. Finnish folkloristics has in fact developed a more cogent
methodology for the study of mentalities by exploiting the theory borrowed from
cognitive research regarding the storage and processing of observations and data.
Mentalities can thus be conceived of as cognitive, emotional and action-determining
models for viewing the world <…> Mentality creates shapes of the cultural models
and orders visible expressions of culture such as the folkloristic genres and motifs”9.
Questions
Elementary level:
1. What is mentality?
2. What notion is close to the notion “mentality”?
3. Who has established the concept of mentality?
Intermediate level:
1. What is the difference between the concepts of “mentality” and
“worldview”?
2. In what way does mentality relates to everyday life?
3. What disadvantages does the concept of mentality have?
Advanced level:
1. In what historical period does the concept of mentality become more actual?
Why is it so?
9
Myth and Mentality Studies in Folklore and Popular Thought / Ed. by A.-L. Siikala. Helsinki: Finnish
Literature Society, 2002. P. 7–8.
26
Culture, mentality and health believes
Question:
How do you think, if culture influences our knowledge about health and
diseases? Can you give an example?
Task: read the following text about mentality and do the task after it.
“All cultures have systems of health beliefs to explain what causes illness, how
it can be cured or treated, and who should be involved in the process. The extent to
which patients perceive patient education as having cultural relevance for them can
have a profound effect on their reception to information provided and their
willingness to use it. Western industrialized societies such as the United States, Great
Britan, Russia and so on, which see disease as a result of natural scientific
phenomena, advocate medical treatments that combat microorganisms or use
sophisticated technology to diagnose and treat disease. Other societies believe that
illness is the result of supernatural phenomena and promote prayer or other spiritual
interventions that counter the presumed disfavor of powerful forces.
There are also different traditions and rules in all countries. For example,
among Asian cultures, maintaining harmony is an important value; therefore, there is
a strong emphasis on avoiding conflict and direct confrontation. Due to respect for
authority, disagreement with the recommendations of health care professionals is
avoided. However, lack of disagreement does not indicate that the patient and family
agree with or will follow treatment recommendations. Among Chinese patients,
because the behavior of the individual reflects on the family, mental illness or any
behavior that indicates lack of self-control may produce shame and guilt. As a result,
Chinese patients may be reluctant to discuss symptoms of mental illness or
depression <…> Vietnamese don’t readily accept Western mental health counseling
and interventions, particularly when self-disclosure is expected. However, it is
possible to accept assistance if trust has been gained <…> The Russian experience
with medical practitioners in Soviet period has been an authoritarian relationship in
which free exchange of information and open discussion was not usual. As a result,
many Russian patients find it difficult to question a physician and to talk openly
about medical concerns. Patients expect a paternalistic approach-the competent health
care professional does not ask patients what they want to do, but tells them what to
do. This reliance on physician expertise undermines a patient’s motivation to learn
more about self-care and preventive health behaviors <…> Although Hispanics share
27
a strong heritage that includes family and religion, each subgroup of the Hispanic
population has distinct cultural beliefs and customs. Older family members and other
relatives are respected and are often consulted on important matters involving health
and illness. Fatalistic views are shared by many Hispanic patients who view illness as
God’s will or divine punishment brought about by previous or current sinful
behavior. Hispanic patients may prefer to use home remedies and may consult a folk
healer, known as a curandero.
As can be seen, each ethnic group brings its own perspectives and values to the
health care system, and many health care beliefs and health practices differ from
those of your own culture. Unfortunately, the expectation of many health care
professionals has been that patients will conform to mainstream values. Such
expectations have frequently created barriers to care that have been compounded by
differences in language and education between patients and providers from different
backgrounds.
Cultural differences affect patients’ attitudes about medical care and their
ability to understand, manage, and cope with the course of an illness, the meaning of
a diagnosis, and the consequences of medical treatment. Patients and their families
bring culture specific ideas and values related to concepts of health and illness,
reporting of symptoms, expectations for how health care will be delivered, and
beliefs concerning medication and treatments. In addition, culture specific values
influence patient roles and expectations, how much information about illness and
treatment is desired, how death and dying will be managed, bereavement patterns,
gender and family roles, and processes for decision making”10.
Task: work in pairs. Write 3 or 4 questions that, in your point of view, it is
important to ask your foreign patient to make your treatment more effective.
Moving into foreign country and culture shock
Read an example of an essay of a foreign student describing her experience in
moving to foreign country. Think, if you have had similar problems with adaptation
to Russian culture? Have you experienced a cultural shock? Write your story about
encounter with a new culture.
10
How culture influences health beliefs // EuroMed Info: website. URL: https://www.euromedinfo.eu/how-
culture-influences-health-beliefs.html.
28
The culture shock of being an international student
“For any student, moving away from home can be a bit scary. But I did not
expect student life in Scotland to be all that different from my home of the
Netherlands. After all, we get the same news and TV shows online. Many students
find the northwest climate can affect them a lot. You may find the grayness and
dampness, especially during the winter months, difficult to get used to. However,
when I moved from Amsterdam to study at the University of Stirling, I began to
realize that a few minor issues were catching me off balance. I was suffering a minor
cultural shock.
In my first year, I quickly found out my English was not as good as I had
assumed. Most of my roommates were born and raised in Scotland, and I constantly
found myself having to ask people to repeat themselves. Their Scottish accents did
not help and I was mispronouncing names and places all the time. I also got confused
about minor cultural things. Much to my flatmates’ amusement, it took me two
Christmases to figure out that mince pies are not actually filled with minced beef.
The linguistic barrier meant that public transport was tricky at first. I found the
lack of information about bus prices and how and where to get tickets really
surprising. It turned a simple 15-minute journey into a daunting task.
Then I had to adjust to a new social life. I was surprised by the campus culture
in the UK — in the Netherlands, most universities don’t have one main campus
where you can attend university, as well as live and exercise all in the same place.
But here, you never have to leave campus if you don’t want to. I had to adapt to
everyone being so close to each other all the time.
Parties are different here too. In the Netherlands, the less effort you put into
getting ready, the better. I’d normally slip on my trusty Converse shoes, along with
some clothes I could get away with wearing to class tomorrow, and wear minimal
make-up. But, in my experience, partying is more formal in the UK. Your make-up
needs to be flawless and your hair needs to be immaculate. You’ll preferably be
wearing a dress and heels, too.
But it is not all early closing times and strange pastries. Social behaviours may
also confuse, surprise or offend you. For example, you may find peopleappear cold,
distant or always in a hurry.
However, I have found lots of pleasant surprises in the UK too — and so have
many other international students I know. My friend Agnes was taken aback by how
sociable people are. She says she was shocked when complete strangers started
29
talking to her at the bus stop. I, personally, was surprised by how smartly male
students in Sterling dress compared to my home country.
Culture shock can knock your confidence in the beginning. But you are not
alone in taking time to adapt, and soon you start to come to grips with all
experiences. Studies suggest that taking a gap year or studying abroad can positively
influence your brain to make you more outgoing and open to new ideas. Looking
back, most of the ones I experienced made good stories to tell my friends”11.
Changing the culture
Task: read the text and answer the questions. Before reading assume, if people
can change their traditions, values, behavior and so on? What needs to be done to
make such changing?
Is it possible to change the culture?
“Who could be qualified as an agent of cultural change? Anybody with a
Facebook account, podcast, or YouTube channel. It’s easier today than it has ever
been for anybody to change culture.
Cultural values are reformed in three stages: get people thinking, get people
together, and get institutional change.
To begin, some type of critical incident is usually necessary to create
awareness of and then to question ‘the philosophy of common sense’. Mannheim
describes this as an unveiling of our ‘false consciousness’ — that is, the uncritically-
accepted assumptions of the dominant culture. For example, when in 1787, the
British abolitionist Thomas Clarkson met the Member of Parliament William
Wilberforce and showed him the handcuffs, shackles, and branding irons used in the
slave trade. This, along with Clarkson’s essay on slavery, was enough to get William
Wilber force thinking, and redirect his efforts for the next thirty-five years to work to
make the slave trade illegal.
In stage two, awareness must spread to a sizeable minority through the activity
of the organic intellectuals. Gramsci says that when enough organic individuals
network together, they form a new voice, loud enough to challenge the ‘philosophy of
common sense’.
In cultural reform stage three, ideas must change institutions — or create
influential new ones. It’s not enough to have ten trillion likes on Facebook; your
11
The culture shock of being an international student // Образовательный портал для подготовки к
экзаменам: сайт. URL: https://en-ege.sdamgia.ru/problem?id=3952.
30
ideas must change people’s behaviour. It’s not enough to get a hundred organic
intellectuals talking about them, either: your ideas must create policy change.
Unfortunately, this stage often drags on for decades. For example, in 1929, the
German doctor Fritz Lickint published a formal study that linked smoking with lung
cancer. But it was not until 1964, after seven thousand more studies had been
published, that the US Surgeon General’s office made its first public announcement
on the dangers of smoking.
An idea must re-align the behaviour, policy, and laws of institutions in order
to have a widespread and lasting effect on culture. Once embodied in institutions, the
institutions themselves start doing the work of socializing individuals.
The process of cultural reform is never finished. Power is always being
negotiated. Culture is not something static — people are always changing culture. So,
the real challenge, after all, may not be how to change culture. Philosophers have
given us a roadmap for how to do that. The real challenge may be changing culture
with humility and civility, knowing that everyone is upset about something in the
culture, and that many people are doing their best to make this a better world”12.
Questions
Elementary level:
1. Name three stages of changing the culture.
2. Why is it simpler today to change public opinion then it has ever been
before?
Intermediate level:
1. How do you understand the phrase “an unveiling of our ‘false
consciousness’”?
2. How do you understand the phrase “to challenge the ‘philosophy of common
sense’”?
3. What can challenge the ‘philosophy of common sense’?
4. How do you think, why do policy changes take decades?
5. What is the most difficult in changing the culture, according to the author of
the article?
Advanced level:
1. From the history of culture of your country or other ones give some
examples of situations when people unveil the uncritically-accepted assumptions of
the dominant culture.
2. What is the most important changes in last 100 years in your country,
according to your opinion?
12
Brinkmann K. How Can Cultural Values Be Reformed? // Philosophy Now. 2019. April/May. P. 20.
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