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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5882_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
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- •Carbon Based Nanomaterials for Drug Delivery
- •Preface
- •Acknowledgements
- •Contents
- •Editor and Contributors
- •Abbreviations
- •1.2 Market Statistics
- •Carbon-Based Nanomaterials: An Overview
- •1. Introduction
- •1.1 Evolution of Carbon-Based Nanomaterials
- •2. Carbon-Based Nanostructures
- •2.1 Fullerene
- •2.2 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)
- •2.4 Graphene
- •2.5 Nanodiamonds (NDs)
- •2.6 Nano-Onions (CNOs)
- •2.7 Nanohorns (CNHs)
- •2.8 Carbon Dots (CDs)
- •2.9 Nanoporous Activated Carbon
- •3. Synthesis Techniques
- •4. Properties of Carbon-Based Nanomaterials
- •4.1 Physicochemical Properties
- •4.2 Thermal Properties
- •4.3 Mechanical Properties
- •4.4 Optoelectronic Properties
- •4.5 Antimicrobial Properties
- •4.6 Biological Properties
- •5. Applications of Carbon-Based Nanomaterials
- •5.1 Environmental Remediation
- •5.2 Agriculture
- •5.3 Biofuel
- •5.4 Energy Storage
- •5.5 Biomedical Applications
- •6. Challenges and Future Perspectives
- •7. Concluding Remarks
- •References
- •Carbon-Based Nanostructured Materials: Designing, Properties and Applications
- •1. Introduction
- •2.1 Zero-Dimensional Carbon-Based Nanostructures (0D)
- •2.2 One-Dimensional Carbon-Based Nanostructures
- •2.3 Two-Dimensional (2D) Carbon-Based Nanostructures
- •2.4 Three-Dimensional (3D) Carbon-Based Nanostructures
- •3.1 Chemical Vapor Deposition
- •3.2 Hydrothermal and Solvothermal Techniques
- •3.3 Microwave-Assisted Technique
- •3.4 Chemical Oxidation Synthesis
- •4. Properties of Carbon-Based Nanostructured Materials
- •4.1 Thermal Properties
- •4.2 Mechanical Properties
- •4.3 Optoelectronic Properties
- •4.4 Antimicrobial Properties
- •4.5 Biological Properties
- •5. Applications of Carbon-Based Nanostructured Materials
- •5.2 Antibacterial and Antiviral Applications
- •5.3 Theragnostic
- •5.4 Wound Healing
- •5.5 Tissue Engineering
- •5.6 Drug Delivery
- •5.7 Biosensing
- •6. Challenges and Future Perspectives
- •7. Concluding Remarks
- •References
- •Drug Delivery System and Technologies
- •1. Introduction
- •2. Drug Delivery System
- •2.1 Conventional Drug Delivery System
- •2.2 Advanced Drug Delivery System
- •2.3 Controlled and Sustainable Drug Delivery System
- •3. Drug Delivery Technologies
- •3.1 Active and Passive Drug Delivery
- •3.2 Smart Drug Delivery
- •3.3 Intravenous and Extravaneous Drug Delivery
- •3.4 Various Types of Delivery Technologies
- •4. Challenges and Future Perspectives
- •5. Conclusion
- •References
- •Carbon-Based Nanomaterials for Drug Delivery: Past, Present, Future Directions
- •1. Introduction
- •3. Current Status in Drug Delivery by CNMs
- •3.1 Graphene-Based Nanomaterials in Drug Delivery
- •3.4 Nanodiamond Based Drug Delivery Systems
- •3.5 Nano-Onions in Drug Delivery
- •3.6 Nanohorns in Drug Delivery
- •3.7 Fullerene in Drug Delivery
- •4. Challenges and Future Perspective
- •5. Conclusions
- •References
- •Carbon Nanomaterial-Incorporated Supramolecular Drug Delivery
- •1. Introduction
- •2. Different Carbon Nanomaterials in Drug Delivery
- •2.1 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)
- •2.3 Graphene
- •2.4 Carbon Quantum Dots
- •2.5 Fullerene
- •2.6 Carbon Nanohorns
- •2.7 Carbon Nano-Onions
- •2.8 Nano-Diamond
- •3. Supramolecular Chemistry in Drug Delivery
- •3.1 Principles of Supramolecular Chemistry
- •3.3 Applications of Supramolecular Biomaterials
- •4. Carbon Nanomaterial-Incorporated Supramolecular Drug Delivery
- •5.1 Cyclodextrins
- •5.2 Calixarenes
- •5.3 Cucurbituril
- •5.4 Pillarenes
- •5.5 Crown Ether
- •6. Toxicity Concerns of Carbon Nanomaterials
- •7. Improving the Effectiveness of Nanoparticle Systems
- •8. Future of Nanomedicine
- •9.1 Challenges
- •9.2 Future Perspectives and Opportunities
- •9.3 Conclusions
- •References
- •Carbon Nanomaterial-Based Polymeric Nanocomposites for Drug Delivery
- •1. Introduction
- •2.1 Carbon Quantum Dot-Based Polymer Nanocomposite
- •2.2 Carbon Nanotube-Based Polymer Nanocomposite
- •2.3 Graphene Quantum Dot-Based Polymer Nanocomposite
- •2.5 Fullerene-Based Polymer Nanocomposite
- •2.6 Nanodiamond-Based Polymer Nanocomposite
- •3. Drug Delivery Systems Using Carbon Nanomaterial
- •3.1 Anticancer Drug Delivery
- •3.3 Infectious Disease Drug Delivery
- •3.4 Topical Drug Delivery
- •3.5 Brain Drug Delivery
- •3.6 Oral Drug Delivery
- •4. Challenge and Future Perspectives
- •5. Conclusion
- •References
- •Carbon Nanomaterial-Incorporated Polysaccharide-Based Nanocomposite for Drug Delivery
- •1. Introduction
- •1.1 Drug Delivery
- •1.2 Carbon Nanomaterials
- •1.3 Polysaccharide-Based Nanocomposite
- •2.1 CN-Incorporated Alginate-Based Nanocomposite
- •2.2 CN-Incorporated Cellulose-Based Nanocomposite
- •2.3 CN-Incorporated Chitosan-Based Nanocomposite
- •2.4 CN-Incorporated Dextran-Based Nanocomposite
- •2.5 CN-Incorporated Hyaluronic Acid-Based Nanocomposite
- •2.6 CN-Incorporated Starch-Based Nanocomposite
- •2.7 CN-Incorporated Pectin-Based Nanocomposite
- •2.8 CN-Incorporated Guar Gum-Based Nanocomposite
- •2.9 CN-Incorporated Agarose-Based Nanocomposite
- •2.10 CN-Incorporated Carrageenan-Based Nanocomposite
- •2.11 CN-Incorporated Glucomannan-Based Nanocomposite
- •3. Challenges and Future Prospective
- •4. Concluding Remarks
- •References
- •Graphene-Based Nanomaterials for Drug Delivery
- •1. Introduction
- •1.1 Challenges in Conventional Drug Delivery Systems
- •1.2 Overview of Nanomaterials for Drug Delivery
- •1.3 Role of Graphene-Based Nanomaterials in Drug Delivery
- •2. Synthesis of Graphene
- •2.1 Chemical Reduction Method
- •2.2 Thermal Reduction
- •2.3 Electrochemical Reduction
- •2.4 Chemical Vapor Deposition Method
- •2.5 Mechanical Exfoliation
- •2.6 Epitaxial Growth Method
- •2.7 Growth in Solvothermal and Hydrothermal Systems
- •2.8 Electrochemical Deposition
- •3. Types of Graphene-Based Materials
- •3.1 Graphene Quantum Dots, (GQDs)
- •3.2 Graphene Oxide (GO)
- •3.3 Graphene Nanoribbons (GNRs)
- •3.4 Oxidized Graphene Nanoribbons
- •4. Graphene Functionalized Materials for Drug Delivery
- •4.1 In Bone Tissue Regeneration
- •4.2 In Neural Regeneration
- •4.3 In Photodynamic and Photothermal Therapy
- •4.4 In Enhancing Cellular and Humoral Immunity
- •4.6 Miscellaneous
- •5. Challenges and Future Perspective
- •6. Conclusion
- •References
- •Carbon Quantum Dots Based Materials for Drug Delivery
- •1. Introduction
- •2. Synthesis Process of Carbon Quantum Dots
- •2.1 Top-Down Approaches
- •2.2 Bottom-Up Approaches
- •2.3 Microwave-Assisted Method
- •2.4 Electrochemical Method
- •2.5 Laser Ablation Method
- •2.6 Pyrolysis Method
- •2.7 Template-Assisted Method
- •4. Challenges and Future Perspective
- •5. Concluding Remarks
- •References
- •Carbon-based Nanocarriers for Sustained Drug Release in Dentistry
- •1. Introduction
- •2.1 Oral Mucosa Structure
- •2.2 Sites for Drug Delivery
- •2.3 Permeability
- •3. Local Drug Delivery for Dental Diseases
- •3.1 Odontogenic Infection
- •3.2 Non-odontogenic Infection
- •4. Bio-adhesive Nanoparticles: Novel Treatment Modality
- •4.1 Bio-adhesive Nanoparticles
- •4.2 Mechanism of Bioadhesion
- •5.1 Carbon Nanotubes
- •5.2 Graphene
- •5.3 Nanodiamonds
- •5.4 Fullerenes
- •5.5 Porous Carbon
- •5.6 Carbon Dots
- •6. Drug Delivery Systems Based on CBNs
- •6.2 Immediate Drug Delivery System (IDDS)
- •6.3 Sustained-release Drug Delivery Systems
- •6.4 Controlled Drug Delivery System (CDDs)
- •8. Conclusion
- •References
- •Fullerene Based Materials for Drug Delivery
- •1. Introduction
- •2. Types of Fullerene Derivatives
- •2.1 Exohedral Fullerene Derivatives
- •2.2 Endohedral Fullerene Derivatives
- •2.3 Surface Derivatized Fullerenes
- •3. Interaction of Fullerene Derivatives for Drug Delivery
- •4. Fullerene Based Materials for Drug Delivery
- •4.1 Nucleic Acid Delivery
- •4.2 Peptide Delivery
- •4.3 Topical Drug Delivery
- •4.4 Infectious Diseases Drug Delivery
- •4.5 Anticancer Drug Delivery
- •4.7 Brain Drug Delivery
- •4.8 Ocular Drug Delivery
- •5. Challenges and Future Perspectives
- •6. Concluding Remarks
- •6.1 Abbreviations
- •References
- •Graphene Quantum Dots-based Nanomaterials for Drug Delivery
- •1. Introduction
- •2. Synthesis of GQDs
- •3. GQD’s Properties for Drug Delivery
- •3.1 Optical Properties
- •3.2 Physicochemical Properties
- •3.3 Mechanical Properties
- •3.4 Biocompatibility and Cytotoxicity
- •4. Characterization of GQDs-Based Nanomaterials
- •4.1 Characterization of Multifunctional GQDs-Based Nanomaterials
- •5.1 Strategies for Developing Medication Delivery Systems Based on GQD
- •5.2 PH-responsive Drug Delivery Systems (GQD-DDSs)
- •5.3 Targeted Drug Delivery Using Ligand-Based GQDs as a Mediator
- •5.4 Improvement of Medicines’ Pharmacological Properties Using GQDs
- •5.5 Enhancing Cytotoxicity with GQD-DDS
- •7. Applications of Chiral GQDs
- •10. Challenges and Future Perspectives
- •11. Conclusions
- •References
- •Carbon Nano-onions for Drug Delivery
- •1. Introduction
- •2. Carbon Nano-Onion: A Multi-Layered Nanocarrier
- •3. Synthesis of Carbon Nano-Onions
- •3.1 Annealing Method
- •3.2 Carbon Ion Implantation Method
- •3.3 Arc Discharge Method
- •3.4 Carbon Vapour Deposition Method
- •3.5 Pyrolysis Method
- •6. Carbon Nano-Onions in Drug Delivery
- •6.1 Delivery of Therapeutic Agents
- •6.2 Delivery of Targeting Agents
- •6.3 Delivery of Imaging Agents
- •7. Challenges and Future Perspectives
- •8. Concluding Remarks
- •References
- •Chitosan/Carbon Nanocomposites in Drug Delivery and Cardiovascular Diseases
- •1. Introduction
- •1.1 Drug Delivery
- •1.2 Cardiovascular Diseases
- •1.3 Chitosan and Its Properties
- •1.4 Chitosan/Carbon Nanocomposites
- •2. Chitosan/Carbon Nanocomposites in Drug Delivery
- •3. Chitosan/Carbon Nanocomposites in CVDs
- •3.1 Chitosan-Based Scaffolds
- •3.2 Chitosan in Cardiac Tissue Engineering
- •3.3 Chitosan-Based Cell Therapy
- •3.4 Chitosan-Based Gene Delivery
- •3.5 Chitosan-Protein Interaction
- •4. Challenges and Future Perspective
- •5. Concluding Remarks
- •References
- •Graphene Reinforced Chitosan Nanocomposites for Drug Delivery
- •1. Introduction
- •2. Chitosan: Structure and Properties
- •3. Graphene: Structure, Types and Properties
- •4.1 Electrospinning Method
- •4.2 Sol–gel Method
- •4.3 Solution Mixing Method
- •4.4 In-situ Polymerization Method
- •5.2 Chitosan/Graphene Aerogels
- •5.3 Chitosan/Graphene Hydrogels
- •5.4 Chitosan/Graphene Thin Films
- •6.1 Oral Drug Delivery
- •6.2 Mucosal Drug Delivery
- •6.3 Transdermal Drug Delivery
- •6.4 Parenteral Drug Delivery
- •7. Challenges and Future Perspectives
- •8. Concluding Remarks
- •References
- •1. Introduction
- •2. Functionalization of CNFs
- •2.1 The Need for Functionalization

Carbon Nanomaterial-Based Polymeric Nanocomposites for Drug … 185
Acknowledgements This work was supported by grants from the Natural Science Foundation
of Heilongjiang Province of China (Grant Number LH2021B032) and Heilongjiang Provincial Universities Basal Research Foundation-Youth Innovation Talent Project (Grant Number
145109210).
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Carbon Nanomaterial-Incorporated Polysaccharide-Based Nanocomposite for Drug Delivery
Krishna Manjari Sahu, Kumar Panchajanya Nayak,
and Sarat Kumar Swain
Abstract Drug delivery procedure assists in enhancing the efficacy and safety in
the administion of therapeutic agents. Certainly, selecting an efficacious drug administration carrier is a significant challenge for researchers. Incorporating polysaccharides and carbon nanomaterials (CNs) in the synthesizing method of nanocomposites
can offer a solution to overcome the obstacle of non-biodegradability and minimal
biocompatibility properties, and low loading efficiencyand controlled and prolonged
therapeutic administration affinity of the drug carrier system. The collaborating
outcomes arising from the integration of CNs and polysaccharides are underscored,
offering a nuanced understanding of their potential as therapeutic delivery vehicles.
This chapter serves as a concise overview of the intricate interplay between CNs
and polysaccharides, providing valuable insights for researchers and practitioners
engaged in advancing nanomedicine for enhanced drug delivery applications.
Keywords Carbon nanomaterials
delivery
· Chitosan · Cellulose · Hyaluronic acid · Drug
Abbreviations
1
HNMR1H nuclear magnetic resonance
AFM Atomic force microscope
ALG/al Alginate
Apt Aptamer
ATR-IR Attenuated Total Reflection-Infrared radiation
BET Brunauer-Emmett-Teller
CA Calcium alginate
CA-CD Carbon dot coated alginate beads
CLSM Confocal laser scanning microscopy
K. M. Sahu · K. Panchajanya Nayak · S. K. Swain (B)
Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla, Sambalpur 768018, India
e-mail: skswain_chem@vssut.ac.in
189

190 K. M. Sahu et al.
CMC
CMC
Carboxymethyl cellulose
1
Carboxymethyl chitosan
2
CMS Carboxymethyl starch CUR/cur: Curcumin
DCA Deoxycholic acid
DLS Dynamic light scanning
DSC Differential scanning calorimetry
DSPE Distearoylphosphatidylethanolamine
EDS Energy dispersive spectroscopy
EDX Energy dispersive X-ray
EPI Epirubicin
FCM Flow cytometric analyses
FESEM Field emission scanning electron microscopy
FI Fluorescein isothiocyanate
FTIR Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
GCN Graphitic carbon nitride
Gl Glucose
GNS Graphene nanosheets
HA
1
Hydroxyapatite
HPCHS Hydropropyl chitosan
HPLC High-Performance Liquid Chromatography
IBU Ibuprofen
IONP Iron oxide nanoparticle
MG Magnetic graphene oxide
MOFs Metal–organic frameworks
mPEG Methoxy polyethylene glycol amine
NAP Naproxen
N-CQDs Nitrogen-doped carbon quantum dots
OAL Oxidized sodium alginate
PL Photoluminescence
PNIPAM Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)
PVA Poly vinyl alcohol
QC Quercetin
SA Sodium alginate
SEM Scanning electron microscope
SWNH Single-walled carbon nanohorns
TEM Transmission electron microscopy
TEM Transmission electron microscope
TGA Thermogravimetric analysis
TPP Tripolyphosphate
UV-Vis UV–Visible spectroscopy
VSM Vibrating sample magnetometer
XPS X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
XRD X-ray diffraction pattern
β-TC Tetracycline associated with β-cyclodextrin

Carbon Nanomaterial-Incorporated Polysaccharide-Based … 191
1 Introduction
1.1 Drug Delivery
Drug delivery is a process that permits the administration of a medicinal material
inside the body, optimizing its efficacy and safety through precise control of factors
such as administration rate, timing, location, and route. This procedure entails the
release of medicinal substances, administration of the product’s active components,
and the subsequent transportation of the therapeutics to the requisite location. It can
also be interpretive as a way of providing medication to patients and consequently
to improve the concentration of the drug in specific areas of the body over others. To
achievethe efficacious drug delivery outcomes, a good therapeutic transport platform
is needed. Generally, therapeutic delivery system is employed as a vehicle or carrier
for delivering drugs or therapeutic agents. This carrier serves as a link between the
patient and the medicine. It might be a medication formulation used for medicinal
purposes or a device used to deliver the medicine. This difference between drug and
device is significant since it is the condition for drug control agencies’ regulatory
supervision of the delivery method [1]. The goal of a medication administration
vehicle is to carry the desired amount of medicine to the needed site while avoiding
any undesired side effects of the drug on adjacent healthy tissues or cells. Any drug
delivery system’s primary objective is to administrate the medicine into the desired
area with a safe interaction.
There are so many ways of drug delivery process in which a drug deliveryplatform
carries considerable amount of drug in determining the effectiveness of the employed
approach. The administration of medication in the form of tablets, capsules, syrups,
powder, spray, ointment, etc. is known as conventional drug delivery. It is seen that
the dosage is not properly maintained within the therapeutic window while using
traditional drug delivery methods since the body eliminates them extremely fast
before the complete action of drug. In this process, the drugs metabolize exceedingly fast after a single typical dose, causing the drug level to rise and then instantly
drop exponentially. During conventional drug delivery approach, the time period
could not be sufficient to have a meaningful therapeutic impact, leading to a subtherapeutic response and variations in plasma drug levels [2]. Although traditional
delivery methods are vastly implemented, these methods have several disadvantages,
including fast drug administration, quick degradation or metabolism, need of frequent
dosage, inadequacy to transport hydrophobic medicines easily, and lack of target
selectivity. Numerous pharmaceutical scientists want to produce an advanced therapeutic administration platform that is less complicated, having effective biodegradable and biological compatible properties, environment-sensitive, and selective in
its targeting. Any substrate used during the drug delivery process that increases the
selectivity, efficacy, and stability of drug administration is referred to as an advanced
drug carrier. Therapeutic carriers serve as a means to regulate the release pattern of
drugs into the systemic circulation. This modulation can occur through the gradual
dispersion of the drug over an extended duration or through the prompt release

192 K. M. Sahu et al.
of the drug specifically at its target, triggered by particular stimuli, such as pH
changes, temperature use, and light actuation. Additionally, drug carriers are utilized
to improve the pharmacokinetic characteristics, in particular the bioaccessibility, of
many medications with subpar water solubility and membrane permeability [3].
Hence, the incorporation of preferred and innovative features in the fabrication of
therapeutic delivery carriers is essential to ensure the successful advancement in this
field and to make cost-effective products. Nanotechnology has proven to be instrumental in the advancement of medication delivery platforms, venturing into the realm
of drug administration. It achieves this by enabling various components to replicate
the complexity and precise structure of biomolecules, thereby expanding its capacity
to efficiently transport therapeutic agents. In pursuit of immediate results in this application, various drug delivery vehicles utilizing nanomaterials have been developed
and thoroughly examined [4–6]. Out of a humongous number of nanoscale-ranged
materials, carbon nanomaterials or carbonaceous nanomaterials (CNs) are gaining
prominence as prospective materials for fabricating drug delivery systems [7].
1.2 Carbon Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials are generally the materials with unique characteristics and structures
at the nanoscale region, with dimensions generally extended across the range from
1 to 100 manometers (nm) [8]. CNs are predominantly composed of carbon atoms
and possess distinctive nanoscale properties. These materials offer a wide range of
possibilities for medication delivery and various other applications due to their unique
properties. Some well-known CNs include carbon nanotube (CNT), graphene and
its derivatives, graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO), carbon dots
including carbon quantum dot (CQD) and graphene quantum dot (GQD), carbon
nanohorn (CNH), carbon nanoonion (CNO), and nanodiamond (ND) [9–11].
1.2.1 Carbon Nanotube
CNTs are of cylindrical shape and are made up of hexagonally organized carbon
atoms. They may be conceived of as rolled up sheets of graphene in a tubular form.
According to CNTs’ structural characteristics, there are two main varieties of CNTs:
single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTS) and multi-walled carbon nanotubes
(MWCNTS). CNTs offer distinct qualities like remarkable strength, and electrical
and thermal conductivity, making them of tremendous interest in a sundry kind of
scientific and technological disciplines [12–16]. In 2005, Dr. Michael Sailor and his
co-researchers at the University of California, San Diego, established a technique
for l oading anticancer medicines onto SWCNTs and proved the promising effects
of SWCNTs for targeted drug delivery towards cancer cells. Since then, SWCNTs
have been actively researched in the area of drug administration application because
of their capacity to transport medicines, peptides, and other bioactive compounds

Carbon Nanomaterial-Incorporated Polysaccharide-Based … 193
to particular cellular targets, presenting the promise for more effective and specific
treatments with less negativeside effects [17–20]. On the other hand, MWCNTs were
used for medicine administration for the first time in the early 2000s. Researchers
started looking at the potential of functionalized MWCNTs as medication administration systems, notably for the curing of cancer [21–24]. In order to move and
transport medicinal compounds, CNTs have become a new alternative and effective materials. CNT may be modified with biologically active components, namely
peptides, proteins, nucleic acids, and medicines and utilized to transport cargo therapeutics. Furthermore, CNTs’ huge surface area, which enables a high accommodating capacity of therapeutic medicines, is the main advantage in their efficacy
in drug delivery applications. Because functionalized CNTs are non-immunogenic
and have minimal toxicity, such systems have enormous potential in nanobiotechnology and nanomedicine [25]. However, the biocompatibility of CNT is influenced
by a variety of elements, including, as the manufacturing process, the presence of
contaminants (often metallic catalysts), their size and shape, their dispersion and
aggregation location, delivery route, and cellular absorption. Therefore, choosing
the right material to functionalized CNT should be considered during the production
of CNT-based drug delivery carrier [26].
1.2.2 Graphene
A 2D honeycomb lattice is created by arranging a monolayer of carbon atoms to
form graphene sheet. Graphene is one of the strongest, lightest, and most conductive
substances known to humankind. Scientists Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov
at the University of Manchester were the first to succeed in isolating and characterizing graphene in 2004 [27]. There are two main types of graphene derivatives;
one is GO and another one is rGO. GO is a sheet of carbon atoms of monoatomic
layer thickness, arranged in a hexagonal lattice, similar to graphene but with several
oxygen functional groups bonded to the carbon atoms. These oxygen composed of
groups, namely hydroxyl, epoxy, and carboxyl groups, differentiate GO from pure
graphene by making it more hydrophilic and chemically reactive. The size and thickness of GO sheets might vary depending on the fabrication procedure, although they
commonly have horizontal dimensions varying from nanometers to micrometers
and a thickness of a few atomic layers [28, 29]. Owing to its distinct features, it is
a good option for medication delivery applications. Graphene can carry a considerable payload of medications because of its large surface area and ability to form
stable connections with drug molecules, permitting regulated release and potentially
lowering the frequency of drug delivery. Although properly functionalized graphene
may be rendered biocompatible, since its biocompatibility varies depending on its
functionalization and size. Surface alterations, such as the incorporation of biocompatible polymers or chemicals, can improve compatibility with biological systems.
To target certain cells or tissues, functionalized graphene materials can be coupled
with some targeting ligands, namely antibodies or peptides. As a result, off-target

194 K. M. Sahu et al.
effects are diminished, and medication administration is made more selective. Thermally, graphene has good conductivity. It can sometimes be used for cancer therapy
based on hyperthermia, where localized heating can be employed to release medications or destroy cancer cells. In MRI and photoacoustic imaging, among other
imaging methods, graphene can be utilized as a contrast agent. This makes it easier to
monitor how drug-loaded graphene nanocarriers are dispersed throughout the body.
Numerous in vitro and in vivo scrutinies have shown well-developed graphene materials with little toxicity. The design of graphene-based medication delivery devices
must reduce possible damage, yet safety concerns are crucial. When properly functionalized, graphene’s light weight and flexibility allow it to pass through several
physiological barriers, including the blood–brain barrier. This characteristic is essential for delivering medications to certain bodily locations. Since drugs that are prone
to chemical or enzymatic breakdown require extra care, graphene can be a useful
shielding material to protect them from deterioration and increase their durability
[30–34].
1.2.3 Carbon Nanohorns
A research team from Japan’s Meijo University under the direction of Sumio Iijima
made the initial discovery of CNHs in 1999. CNHs are tubular, horn-like nanoscale
carbon structures. CNHs resemble the shape of a nanoscale horn because they are
constructed of graphene sheets that havebeen curled into conical or horn-like shapes.
The shape and size of CNHs can vary, generally relying on the number of walls and the
size of horns. One or more layers of graphene sheets make up the horn structure in the
common varieties of single-walled carbon nanohorns (SWCNHs) and multi-walled
carbon nanohorns (MWCNHs) [35–37]. CNHs have a huge surface area and an interior hollow, allowing them to encapsulate a considerable number of drug molecules.
This high drug loading capacity is beneficial for delivering therapeutic medicines
in concentrated amounts to the target region. Controlled drug release kinetics can
be achieved by functionalizing or modifying CNHs. Researchers can create CNHbased drug delivery systems that release pharmaceuticals in a sustained, regulated,
or triggered way, boosting therapeutic efficacy and lowering adverse effects by
altering surface characteristics or employing stimuli-responsive coatings. CNHs are
deemed to be biocompatible in general, making them useful for applications involving
medication administration [25, 38–42].
1.2.4 Carbon Nanoonions
CNOs are generally used in biological applications such as biological imaging,
biological sensing, and environmental remediation and also in electronic application
such as capacitors, lithium-ion batteries, fuel cells, terahertz-shielding, and also as
catalysis in chemical reaction. Small CNOs can be utilized safely for biological experiments since they are not cytotoxic as compared to large CNOs [43]. They make an
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