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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5604_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
Carbon Nano-onions for Drug Delivery
Sora Yasri and Viroj Wiwanitkit
Abstract A variety of nanomaterials can be employed for medication delivery.
Encapsulating medications within nanoparticles, which can then be given to specific
places in the body, is a popular strategy. Because of their small size, nanoparticles
can travel more efficiently through the body and can also be tailored to release the
therapeutic payload in a controlled manner. Some nanomaterials can also respond to
external stimuli such as temperature or pH changes, triggering medication release at
specific sites. These are only a handful of the numerous applications for medicine
delivery that nanoparticles have. A nice illustration are carbon nano-onions. Carbon
nano-onions are a special sort of carbon nanomaterial with an onion-like structure.
They have medical applications, particularly in drug delivery. Carbon nano-onions’
small size and the unique structure allows them to be easily taken up by cells, making
them an ideal vehicle for delivering medications to specific sites in the body. They
are also easily modifiable in order to attach certain molecules, allowing for targeted
distribution to specific cells or regions. Furthermore, carbon nano-onions haveshown
promise as an imaging and diagnostic tool. They can be used to improve contrast in
medical imaging, allowing for better diagnosis and treatment. Overall, carbon nanoonions have the potential to transform medicine and medication delivery by opening
up new avenues for targeted and effective therapies for a wide range of diseases and
ailments. The authors explore and describe the use of nano-onions for medication
delivery. Also examples of applications for the treatment of cancer and infections
are provided.
S. Yasri
KM Center, Bangkok, Thailand
V. Wi w a n i t k i t (
Chandigarh University, Punjab, India
e-mail: wviroj@yahoo.com
Dr. D. Y. Patil Medical College, Hospital and Research Centre, D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, India
Department of Eastern Medicine, Government College University Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
Faculty of Medicine, University of Nis, Niš,Serbia
Joseph Ayobalola University, Ikeji-Arakeji, Nigeria
B
)
385
386 S. Yasri and V. Wiwanitkit
Keywords Carbon nano-onions · Structure–property correlations · Synthesis ·
Therapeutic agents · Drug delivery
Abbreviations
CVD1Carbon vapour deposition
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid
FDA Food and Drug Administration
LbL Layer-by-layer
1 Introduction
Everyone experiences the sickness as a common condition. Essentially, cellular
or organ level dysfunction is what causes the sickness. Medicine’s job is to
control and manage the undesirable effects of the disease, which might include
unintended morbidity and mortality. In terms of diseases, the two key medical
processes are diagnosis and treatment. There are many therapeutic techniques available, including medication, vaccines, radio management, and surgical intervention. However, employing “drugs” to manage disease is the approach that is most
frequently used in medicine. Drugs are typically administered with the intention
of treating a medical condition. These fundamental conditions must be met for a
successful treatment outcome to occur: an efficient drug, a safe drug, a sufficient
drug, good drug administration, good drug transportation in the body, and good drug
distribution to the intended target. When treating any condition, medicine distribution is a crucial issue. In contemporary pharmacotherapy, medication distribution has
become a key concern. Today’s pharmacotherapy for the treatment of any disease
starts with the fundamental question of how to have an effective drug delivery system
to the focused target site. New drug delivery methods have been created with the
advent of pharmacobiotechnology and may hold promise for pharmacotherapy. The
utilization of nanotechnology is one of the unique technologies that make for an
interesting illustration.
Focusing on the use of nanotechnology for drug delivery, the newly developed
nano-object is usually used for attachment to drug that is called nanoconjugation.
The conjugation of the nano-object is the basic application in designing of a new
drug delivery system. Jain et al. noted that this technique was an important too in
pharmaceutical and biotechnological research and could be applied for drug delivery
systems for further use in various therapeutic purposes [1, 2]. At present, there
are many conjugation applications (Table 13.1). Nowadays nano-objects are available and applicable for drug delivery in clinical medicine. The use of nanocarriers
Carbon Nano-onions for Drug Delivery 387
can be the big advent for present management of medical disorders. The application of nanocarriers is presently used for management of the difficult- to-manage
and complex disorders such as malignant tumors [3]. There are many reports on
successful use of medial nanocarriers in medical oncology. Nevertheless, there are
also applications of novel nanocarriers in other group of disease.
Fundamentally, nanotechnology is the application of extremely “small” items
that are too small to be seen with the human eye (at the nanoscale). The nano-object
is very small and has a variety of intriguing biological and physical characteristics. When compared to its twin at the supra-nanoscale, an object in the nanoscale
has new electrostatic and biological properties. The main characteristics of nanoobjects are the new ones, and technologists employ them for a variety of applications
because of this. The current new emerging medical science that has only recently
been launched in the field of medicine is known as nanomedicine. Medical biotechnology is particularly intrigued by the use of nanotechnology in drug delivery. The
program is currently being used in medical diabetology to control diabetes mellitus,
the most prevalent metabolic condition in the world. In clinical medicine, insulin
therapy for diabetes mellitus patients is frequently troublesome, and this widespread
issue contributes to subpar disease control and unintended illness consequences.
Medical researchers have been looking for an effective method of delivering insulin
for a very long time. An effective example of the use of new pharmacotechnology
is the administration of insulin using nanocarrier technology. According to Khafagy
et al., the latest technology in clinical medicine today for managing patients with
diabetes mellitus effectively is called the nanoacarrier [4].
Focusing on the application of nanotechnology for drug delivery, the term
“nanoconjugation” refers to the process of attaching a freshly created nano-object
to a drug. In order to build a new drug delivery system, the conjugation of nanoobjects is the fundamental application. According to Jain et al. [1], this technique
was significant for both pharmaceutical and biotechnological research and might be
used to create drug delivery systems to implement in a range of therapeutic applications. Because of their unique qualities, including high surface area, high reactivity,
Table 13.1 The various ways in which a nanomaterial can be used for drug delivery
Examples Details
Drug
carriers
Targeted
drug
delivery
Controlled
release
Imaging Some nanoparticles can be used for imaging purposes because they are fluorescent
Pharmaceuticals can be enclosed in liposomes, dendrimers, or solid lipid
nanoparticles to prevent them from degrading and to increase their solubility and
bioavailability
Nanoparticles can be functionalized with ligands that bind to specific receptors on
target cells, allowing drugs to be delivered to the targeted location selectively
Drug efficacy can be increased and potential adverse effects decreased by using
nanoparticles that release the medication under regulated conditions
or have magnetic properties that make it possible to see how drugs are delivered to
the body
388 S. Yasri and V. Wiwanitkit
and programmability, nanomaterials are well suited for a wide range of biological
applications, including drug administration [5–10]. There are numerous applications
available right now. There are currently a wide variety of innovative nano-objects that
can be used for clinical medicine drug administration. The current management of
medical problems may benefit greatly from the usage of nanocarriers. Nanocarriers
are currently being employed to treat difficult-to-manage and complex illnesses such
as malignant tumors [3]. Many studies on the successful use of medial nanocarriers in
medical oncology exist. Nonetheless, new nanocarriers have applications in various
disease groups.
As previously stated, a number of nanomaterials can be used for medicine delivery.
One prominent technique is to encapsulate drugs into nanoparticles, which may
subsequently be delivered to particular locations in the body. Nanoparticles can travel
more efficiently through the body due to their small size and can also be modified to
release the therapeutic payload in a regulated manner. Furthermore, nanomaterials
can be functionalized with specific targeting ligands, allowing nanoparticles to bind to
and transport cargo directly to cells of interest. Some nanomaterials can also respond
to external stimuli like temperature or pH changes, causing medication to be released
at precise locations in the body. These are only a few of the many applications for
nanoparticles in drug delivery. Nano-onions made of carbon are a good example.
A unique type of carbon nanomaterial with an onion-like structure is known as
carbon nano-onions. They have usages in medicine, particularly in the delivery of
drugs. Because of their tiny size and distinctive structure, carbon nano-onions are
an excellent method for delivering drugs to certain locations in the body. They can
also be easily altered to attach particular molecules, enabling selective distribution
to particular cells or locations. Additionally, carbon nano-onions have demonstrated
promise as a diagnostic and imaging tool. In order to enable improved diagnosis
and treatment, they can be utilized to enhance contrast in medical imaging. Overall,
carbon nano-onions have the potential to alter medicine and medication delivery by
allowing for more targeted and effective therapy for a wide range of diseases and
maladies. In this work, the authors investigate and describe the usage of nano-onions
for drug administration.
2 Carbon Nano-Onion: A Multi-Layered Nanocarrier
Any substance having at least one dimension smaller than 100 nm is referred to as
a nanomaterial. Carbon atoms are arranged in various ways to create structures with
special physical, chemical, and mechanical properties. These materials are called
carbon-based nanomaterials [11–16] (Table 13.2). Nanomaterials made of carbon,
such as fullerenes, graphene, and carbon nanotubes, are some examples of carbonbased nanomaterials. Due to their special nanoscale features, they have a wide range
of applications in industries like electronics, energy, and medicine. In nanomedicine
and nano delivery systems, relatively new but quickly developing fields, materials
in the nanoscale range are employed as diagnostic tools or to administer medicinal
Carbon Nano-onions for Drug Delivery 389
substances to specific targeted regions in a controlled manner. Nanotechnology offers
many benefits in the treatment of chronic human diseases by delivering precise drugs
to designated areas and targets. Recent years have witnessed a variety of important applications for the use of nanomedicine, including chemotherapeutic drugs,
biological agents and immunotherapeutic agents in the treatment of various diseases
[5].
Nanotechnology has transformed the field of pharmacology by enabling the development of more targeted and efficient medications. Nanoparticles with varied characteristics can be created to improve drug solubility, bioavailability, and stability. By
encapsulating pharmaceuticals in nanocarriers like as liposomes, dendrimers, and
polymeric nanoparticles, nanomaterials can also be employed to increase medication delivery. These carriers can preserve drugs from degradation and increase their
circulation time in the body, allowing for more precise medication targeting and
a reduction in side effects. Furthermore, nanotechnology can be utilized to develop
smart medication delivery systems that react to certain stimuli, such as pH or temperature changes, to release the drug at the targeted spot. This is especially helpful for
treating cancer because focused release can increase efficacy while lowering toxicity. We are only beginning to scratch the surface of what is possible with this
fascinating technology, but nanotechnology holds enormous potential for advancing
drug research and development [5–10].
The development of nanomaterial-based drugs has the potential to transform the
area of medicine by permitting the creation of new types of therapy. Nanoparticles
can be tailored to target specific cells or tissues in the body, increasing therapeutic
efficacy while decreasing side effects. Furthermore, nanoparticles can be utilized to
carry medications to the brain, which is challenging to accomplish using typical drug
delivery methods. Overall, the use of nanomaterials in medication development has
the potential to improve patient outcomes while also leading to the creation of novel
Table 13.2 Some forms of common carbon nanomaterials
Examples Details
Graphene Rolls of graphene sheets that can be single-walled or multi-walled
Carbon
nanotubes
Fullerenes Carbon atoms grouped in a cage-like shape form spherical or ellipsoidal
Carbon
nanofibers
Graphene oxide Graphene contains functional groups including oxygen, making it more
Diamond-like
carbon
Amorphous
carbon
Graphene sheets that have been rolled up and can be single-walled or
multi-walled
molecules
Fibers comprised of carbon nanotubes or graphene sheets t hat have been
aligned
hydrophilic and easier to digest
A non-crystalline type of carbon with characteristics similar to diamond but
lacking the regular lattice structure
A type of carbon that is chaotic and lacks long-range organization
390 S. Yasri and V. Wiwanitkit
medicines. The modern form of therapy is currently crucial, especially when there
is a mismatch between a drug’s dose or concentration and its therapeutic effects or
harmful effects. Drugs can be attached to specially made carriers to achieve cellspecific targeting [5, 6]. Numerous nanostructures, including magnetic nanoparticles, polymers, dendrimers, silicon or carbon materials, and liposomes, have been
investigated as drug delivery system carriers (Table 13.3).
Nano-onions are nanomaterials made up of nested spherical shells or “onions”
constructed of various materials. Carbon nano-onions are the important class of
carbon-based nanomaterials. They are composed of carbon atoms stacked in many
layers to form a spherical or onion-like shape (Fig. 13.1). These layers can be
composed of graphene or carbon nanotubes, which are both carbon-based nanomaterials. Because of their structure, they have unique qualities such as increased
stability, optical properties, and magnetic capabilities. A nano-onion’s center is often
comprised of a magnetic or metallic material like iron or gold, while the outer shell
is made of a semiconductor material like silicon or zinc oxide. Typically, the shells
are only a few nanometers thick. Overall, nano-onions’ unusual structure makes
them an intriguing contender for a variety of applications in sectors such as health,
electronics, and energy storage. Nano-onions, as previously stated, are a sort of nanomaterial. They are made up of a series of concentric layers of graphene or carbon
nanotubes. They are typically 3–5 nm in size, making them incredibly tiny and ideal
for a wide range of applications. With this property, in pharmacology, loading of the
drug to different layers is possible (Fig. 13.2). Nano-onions do not occur naturally in
nature and are mainly created in the laboratory using various synthetic processes. As
was mentioned earlier, the nano-onions are carbonaceous nanostructures made up
of several fullerene concentric shells. Along with graphene and its derivatives, these
cage-within-cage structures continue to be among the most intriguing and exciting
carbon forms because of their distinct chemical and physical characteristics. They
are a desirable option in many different fields, including biological systems, thanks
to their superior biocompatibility and bio-safety. Upon surface functionalization,
this nanomaterial exhibits minimal toxicity, high dispersity in aqueous solutions,
Table 13.3 Examples of nanomaterials that can be used for drug delivery
Examples Details
Liposomes These spherical vesicles are made of phospholipid bilayers and can hold both
Polymeric
nanoparticles
Dendrimers These artificial polymer structures have many branches and resemble trees.
Metal
nanoparticles
hydrophilic and hydrophobic medicines. Because they are biodegradable and
biocompatible, they are a safe and effective medication delivery alternative
These are biodegradable polymer particles that can contain medications and
release them over time. Because they may be designed to bind to specific
cells or tissues, they are frequently utilized for targeted medication delivery
As they have several surface groups that can be functionalized with medicines
or targeting molecules and can be employed for drug delivery
These are metal oxide, gold, silver, or other metal-based particles. They could
be employed for medicine delivery
Carbon Nano-onions for Drug Delivery 391
and good medicinal efficacy. Despite the fact that carbon nano-onions and carbon
nanotubes were practically discovered at the same time, their promise in medicinal
applications still seems to be untapped.
Fig. 13.1 The drawing of basic structural models of carbon nano-onions
Fig. 13.2 Drugs loaded to
different layers of
nano-onions
392 S. Yasri and V. Wiwanitkit
Describing the structural features of nano-onions, these are a distinct type of
nanoparticles with a shell-like layering. They typically consist of a core nanoparticle
encased in a number of concentric carbon shells. The size, surface area, electrical
charge, and bonding of nano-onions all have an impact on their physical characteristics. Nano-onions are extremely reactive due to their small size, which also gives
them a vast surface area. They can be employed in a range of applications, including
medication delivery, catalysis, and sensing, thanks to their reactivity. Nano-onions
have distinct electrical properties due to their layered structure. The numerous layers
work as a single unit, acting as a series of capacitors capable of storing and releasing
electrical charge. This feature makes them ideal for energy storage systems like
batteries and supercapacitors. Nano-onions’ layered structure allows for efficient
energy storage, making them potential materials for advanced energy storage applications. Nano-onions are a very adaptable and helpful material in a variety of science
and engineering sectors due to their unique physical characteristics. Conclusively,
carbon nano-onions are identified by the concentric layers of graphene nanoparticles
that resemble an onion. Generally, there are three different kinds of carbon nanoonions as presented in Table 13.4. Based on their size and the quantity of graphitic
shells they have, the three different forms of carbon nano-onions can be divided
into groups. The single-layer carbon nano-onion, which contains just one graphitic
shell, is the smallest variety. The double-layer carbon nano-onion, which contains
two graphitic shells, is the next size up. The multi-layer carbon nano-onion, which
contains three or more shells, is the largest form. Unfortunately, the three various
form of carbon nano-onions cannot be distinguished by the human eye. Without
the use of specialist tools like electron microscopes or other equivalent techniques,
these materials are too small to be seen. There are various reasons why it is crucial
to classify the different kinds of carbon nano-onions. First, the physical, chemical,
and mechanical properties of the carbon nano-onions can be influenced by their
size and structure. A carbon nano-onion’s strength and stability, for instance, can
be affected by the number of graphitic shell layers present, making it more or less
suited for particular purposes. Second, it’s critical to comprehend the various kinds of
carbon nano-onions and their characteristics in order to create novel applications for
these materials. The unique characteristics of carbon nano-onions, such as their large
surface area, make them potentially helpful in industries including nanoelectronics,
catalysis, and biomedicine. Finally, categorization of carbon nano-onions facilitates
comparisons across various investigations and helps standardize these materials.
This may help us comprehend the characteristics and potential uses of carbon nanoonions. Because of their unique characteristics and biocompatibility, nano-onions
have showed promise for a variety of biological applications [17–22].
Nano-onions’ unique properties are significant for their application since they
make them very adaptable and suited for a wide range of applications. Nano-onions
are notable for their small size, high surface area, and unusual electrical and optical
capabilities. These qualities make nano-onions excellent for use as sensors, catalysts, drug delivery vehicles, and other applications in electronics, photonics, and
biomedicine. Furthermore, the ease with which nano-onions may be manufactured
and manipulated increases their potential for usage in a variety of applications.
Carbon Nano-onions for Drug Delivery 393
Table 13.4 Three types of nano-onions
Types Details
Type 1 With a dimension that ranges from 2 to 5 nm, these are the smallest of the three
categories. They are utilized in many different applications, including medicine
delivery, energy storage, and catalysis, and have a large surface area
Type 2 These have a diameter between 5 and 10 nm, making them slightly bigger than Type 1
particles. They are employed in products like lubricants and polymer composites and
have higher number of graphene layers
Type 3 With a diameter ranging from 10 to 20 nm, these are the largest of the three categories.
They are employed in many different applications, including water purification and
electrochemical sensors, and have a distinctive morphology with a curved surface
Table 13.5 contains a few examples. It can demonstrate that nano-onions have a
variety of potential uses, such as sensing, drug administration, imaging, tissue engineering, and as therapeutic agents [22, 23]. Nano-onions are still relativelyyoung and
understudied in comparison to other carbon nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes
and graphene. However,a recent study has demonstrated that they offer several advantages over other carbon nanostructures in biomedicine. Their distinctive shape, for
example, enables for more effective drug delivery, and they can also be functionalized with biomolecules for targeted therapeutic uses (Fig. 13.3). Overall, while there
is still much to learn about the potential of nano-onions in biomedicine, they do show
promise as a versatile and useful material for a range of applications.
Nanostructures with a wide range of applications and adaptability, they are used
in a variety of technological and biomedical domains. It can highlight the potential benefits of carbon nano-onions for biomedical applications such as bioimaging
and sensing, among others. Because of their high biocompatibility, they offer ideal
substrates for the creation of innovative healthcare devices [19]. The particular characteristics of nano-onions make pharmacology an attractive field for their use. Due
to their layered structure, which enables high loading capacities and regulated drug
Table 13.5 Examples of biomedical applications of nano-onions
Examples Details
Drug delivery To work as a targeted drug delivery system, nano-onions can be functionalized
Imaging Nano-onions are advantageous for imaging applications due to their luminous
Tissue
engineering
Biosensors Nano-onions can be utilized to detect biomolecules in biosensors. The material’s
with medicinal molecules, peptides, or antibodies. Nano-onions’ multi-layered
structure can shield medication molecules from deterioration and release them in
a regulated way
characteristics. They can be used to identify cancer cells or as fluorescent
markers for biomolecules
Nano-onions can serve as tissue engineering scaffolds. Cells can grow and
differentiate in a permeable environment thanks to the multilayered structure
high surface area and conductivity make it an attractive candidate for sensing
platforms
394 S. Yasri and V. Wiwanitkit
Fig. 13.3 Brief concept for clinical application for nano-onion particles based therapy
release, they can be employed as drug delivery systems. The enhanced cellular
absorption and targeted distribution to particular cells or tissues made possible
by their diminutive size. Due to their optical and magnetic characteristics, nanoonions can also be utilized in imaging and sensing applications. The potential uses of
nano-onions in pharmacology are constantly growing as a result of ongoing research.
Regarding using of a nanomaterial in pharmacology, the use of nanocarriers for
targeted drug delivery is a new topic that tries to address some of the shortcomings
of free drug administration, such as premature drug degradation, non-specific toxicity, lack of tissue penetration, unwanted side effects, and multi-drug resistance. In
this aspect, the nanocarrier technique has proven beneficial, with certain instances of
Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved nanocarrier systems on the market
[18]. To the best of our knowledge, the FDA has not yet approved nano-onions
for any pharmaceutical purposes. While intriguing research on the potential applications of nano-onions in biomedicine exists, further research is required to completely
understand their safety and efficacy in people. It is crucial to understand that each
new drug or medical device must go through extensive research and clinical studies
before being approved for use in people by the FDA. Because the FDA approval
procedure ensures the safety and efficacy of new pharmaceuticals and medical treatments, the approval is strictly required. There is always a danger connected with
any new pharmacological application that does not have FDA approval. As a result,
before beginning any new drug or treatment, it is critical to consult with a certified
healthcare expert.
The topic of nanotoxicity should be discussed. A developing worry in the realm
of nanotechnology is nano-toxicity. It is crucial to take into account any potential
effects that nanoparticles may have on the environment and human health as they are
used in a variety of applications. Regarding the common question on nano-onions,
depending on their size, shape, and composition, they may be harmful. According
to several studies, some varieties of nanomaterials might be hazardous to cells and
other species. For the nano-onions, there are limited data. A recent study in zebrafish
model showed that the nano-onions induced no toxicity [24]. On the other hand,
in a different study, Xu et al. first hypothesized that reactive oxygen species may
play a role in the ability of multiwall carbon nano-onions to cause deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) damage and death in human umbilical vein endothelial cells [25]. In
a related work, Ding et al. investigated the phenotypic responses of human skin
fibroblast cell populations exposed to multiwall carbon nano-onions and multiwall