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eral descending branch of the thoracodorsal pedicle is identied, and dissection is carried out
medial to it. The remaining branches are sacriced to allow rotation of the ap while the nerve
branches are preserved to keep muscle function.
Intraoperative vascular pedicle injury is an
uncommon complication. It is usually caused due
to traction or inadvertent transection during the
surgery. In situations of pedicle injury intraoperatively, the ap can be converted into a free ap
using the internal mammary artery as the donor
vessels and subscapular vessels for vein graft
(Figs.26.5 and 26.6).
S. Narayanan and K. K. Kabeer
Fig. 26.6 In-setting of the latissimus dorsi muscle ap
on the chest wall within the mastectomy cavity
Fig. 26.5 Dissection of the latissimus dorsi muscle
26.9 Postoperative Care
It is advisable to use sealant dressings with a window over the skin paddle to assess and monitor
the viability of the ap. Monitor the temperature,
appearance and capillary relling the ap. It is
better to avoid any pressure dressing on the ap.
Warms pads may be used to keep the ap well
perfused. Some may contemplate the use of
Glyceryl trinitrate to enhance perfusion. A pillow
can be used to keep the arm abducted away from
the axilla during the early postoperative days.
26 Dissection Guide forLatissimus Dorsi Breast Reconstruction
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199
Upper limb physiotherapy is of utmost importance with a graduated scale to avoid shoulder
stiffness. However, care should be taken to limit
movement in the initial stages to avoid any unintentional injuries to the ap. The patient should
be able to develop a full range of movement
within 3–4weeks from the time of surgery [13,
14].
26.10 Postoperative Complications
Fluid collection at the donner site is the most
common immediate postoperative complication
in up to 76% of cases due to the massive space
created during dissection [15]. Long-term suction drains with quilting during closure has
shown to reduce the rate of seroma. Once drains
are removed, seromas can be dealt with aspiration and pressure dressings. Frequent aspirations
should be avoided as they could lead to secondary infections. However, extensive collections
causing symptoms such as pain and discomfort
due to the heaviness should be aspirated. In situations with persistent seromas, surgical excision
of the pseudo capsule and reclosure can be performed [16]. Some studies have shown the use of
sealants into the cavity to reduce the rate of
seroma along with sclerotherapy and steroid
injections [17–19].
Vascular comprise is an uncommon complication with LDMF with its supply from the thoracodorsal artery. Flap necrosis is minimal even for
those with risk factors such as tobacco use and
diabetes. Hokin and Silfverskiold reported a 7%
rate of partial necrosis. Signicant ap necrosis
occurs when there is an intraoperative injury to
the pedicle or when it twists on itself, leading to
thrombosis with a 1% rate in total ap necrosis
[6, 15].
Functional difculties such as shoulder and
back tightness, weakness in grip, discomfort at
the donor site, reduced power, inability to carry
weights, numbness, leisure activities like swimming are known morbidities following
LDMF. They can be managed to an extent with
intense and prolonged physiotherapy [15].
Other complications noted as with other surgeries are fat necrosis, hematomas and lymphedema. Complications associated with the
combination of autologous and implant-based
surgery apart from those mentioned above are
capsular contracture, animation deformity, high
riding implants and subsequent distortion of the
reconstructed breast occurring in 20–40% of
patients [15]. Up to 8% of patients have seen
implant extrusion, and 54% with capsular contracture [12].
26.11 Key Steps
• Make the skin incision around the marked
paddle, deepen the skin incision obliquely
towards the muscle.
• A subcutaneous pocket on the surface of the
muscle is developed using sharp dissection
superiorly to the level of the tip of the scapula
and posteriorly to the vertebral spines.
• Inferiorly the pocket extended to a point level
with the inferior to the level inferior costal
margin and anteriorly up to anterior border of
LD muscle.
• Superiorly start identifying the oblique supe-
rior border of the muscle, 1–2cm above the tip
of the scapula. Separate this border from the
trapezius which overlies the LD posteriorly.
The fascia is closely related to the
Thoracodorsal trunk in the axilla, so care
must be taken.
• Make a vertical incision in the fascia lateral to
the spinous processes where the trapezius
overlaps the fascial origin of the LD. This
frees the posterior attachment causing the
erector spinae muscles to bulge through the
incision.
• Divide the LD along the inferior margin of the
dissection pocket up to its anterior border
where it overlies the costal margin. Extend
this incision anteriorly across the musculoten-
dinous part of the muscle at the level of the
costal margin.
• Freeing the deep attachments done by dissect-
ing anteriorly on the deep surface of the mus-
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S. Narayanan and K. K. Kabeer
cle, starting from the divided thoracolumbar
fascia at the posterior edge. Grasp this fascial
edge and elevate it rmly. Several perforating
branches of the intercostal and lumbar arteries
are dealt with carefully.
• The interval between the serratus anterior and
the LD is identied, and the LD is lifted
carefully.
• A strong fascia binds the LD to the Teres
major more anteriorly, which needs to be
divided sharply. The fascia is close to thoracodorsal trunk so extreme care must be taken.
• The ap is now completely mobilised and
transposed into the breast cavity through the
axilla without twisting the pedicle.
• The LD ap is secured to the muscle to the
chest wall medially and superiorly helps in
maintaining the position of the ap.
Acknowledgments I would like to express my gratitude
to Ms. Rasitha Farkath M, Bio Meidcal Engineer for her
contribution to this chapter. Ms. Rasitha has created the
illustrations incorporated in this chapter.
References
1. Maxwell GP. Iginio Tansini and the origin of the
latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous ap. Plast
Reconstr Surg. 1980 May;65(5):686–92. https://doi.
org/10.1097/00006534- 198005000- 00027.
2. Olivari N. The latissimus ap. Br J Plast
Surg. 1976 Apr;29(2):126–8. https://doi.
org/10.1016/0007- 1226(76)90036- 9.
3. Schneider WJ, Hill H Jr, Brown RG. Latissimus
dorsi myocutaneous ap for breast reconstruction.
Br J Plast Surg. 1977 Oct;30(4):277–81. https://doi.
org/10.1016/0007- 1226(77)90117- 5.
4. Bostwick J, Vasconez LO, Jurkiewicz MJ. Breast
reconstruction after a radical mastectomy. Plast
Reconstr Surg. 1978 May;61(5):682–93. https://doi.
org/10.1097/00006534- 197805000- 00004.
5. Papp C, McCraw JB. Autogenous latissimus breast
reconstruction. Clin Plast Surg. 1998 Apr;25(2):261–6.
6. Hokin JA, Silfverskiold KL. Breast reconstruction
without an implant: results and complications using
an extended latissimus dorsi ap. Plast Reconstr Surg.
1987 Jan;79(1):58–66.
7. Teymouri H, Stergioula S, Eder M, Kovacs L, Biemer
E, Papadopulos N.Breast reconstruction with autologous tissue following mastectomy. Hippokratia. 2006
Oct;10(4):153–62.
8. Blackburn NE, Mc Veigh JG, Mc Caughan EM,
Kennedy RD, McIntosh SA, Wilson IM. The musculoskeletal consequences of latissmus dorsi breast
reconstruction in women following mastectomy for
breast cancer. PLoS One. 2018;13(8):e0202859.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0202859.
9. Sood R, Easow JM, Konopka G, Panthaki
ZJ. Latissimus Dorsi ap in breast reconstruction:
recent innovations in the workhorse ap. Cancer
Control. 2018 Mar;25(1):1073274817744638. https://
doi.org/10.1177/1073274817744638.
10. Mathes SJ, Nahai F. Classication of the vascular
anatomy of muscles: experimental and clinical correlation. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1981 Feb;67(2):177–87.
11. Greenall MJ.Is there any argument for delayed breast
reconstruction after total mastectomy? Ann R Coll
Surg Engl. 2007 Nov;89(8):754–6. https://doi.org/10.
1308/003588407X209509.
12. Kokosis G, Khavanin N, Nahabedian MY.Latissimus
Dorsi musculocutaneous ap for complex breast
reconstruction: indications, outcomes and a proposed algorithm. Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open.
2019 Aug;7(8):e2382. https://doi.org/10.1097/
GOX.0000000000002382.
13. Russell RC, Pribaz J, Zook EG, Leighton WD,
Eriksson E, Smith CJ. Functional evaluation
of latissimus dorsi donor site. Plast Reconstr
Surg. 1986 Sep;78(3):336–44. https://doi.
org/10.1097/00006534- 198609000- 00009.
14. Spear SL, Hess CL. A review of the biomechanical and functional changes in the shoulder following transfer of the latissimus dorsi muscles. Plast
Reconstr Surg. 2005 Jun;115(7):2070–3. https://doi.
org/10.1097/01.prs.0000163329.96736.6a.
15. Delay E, Gounot N, Bouillot A, Zlatoff P, Rivoire
M. Autologous latissimus breast reconstruction: a
3-year clinical experience with 100 patients. Plast
Reconstr Surg. 1998 Oct;102(5):1461–78.
16. Roje Z, Roje Ž, Janković S, Ninković M. Breast
reconstruction after mastectomy. Collegium antropologicum. Mar. 2010;34(supplement 1):113–23.
17. Motwani SB, et al. The impact of immediate breast
reconstruction on the technical delivery of postmastectomy radiotherapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys.
2006 Sep;66(1):76–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijrobp.2006.03.040.
18. Shermak MA, Rotellini-Coltvet LA, Chang D.Seroma
development following body contouring surgery for
massive weight loss: patient risk factors and treatment
strategies. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2008 Jul;122(1):280–
8. https://doi.org/10.1097/PRS.0b013e31817742a9.
19. Taghizadeh R, Shoaib T, Hart AM, Weiler-Mithoff
EM.Triamcinolone reduces seroma re-accumulation
in the extended latissimus dorsi donor site. J Plast
Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2008 Jun;61(6):636–42.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjps.2007.03.019.
Autologous Reconstruction
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ofBreast
B.C.Ashok andDinakarSreekumar
27
Autologous breast reconstruction after mastectomy utilizes persons own tissue to build breast
mound. Though it is a nonessential reconstruction in terms of functionality and sustainability of
life. It has shown to positively affect the mental
and psychological status of patients.
The advantages of autologous reconstructions
are
• Reconstruction is done using patients own
tissue.
• The new breast has more natural feel and
appearance.
• Has opportunity to restore sensation to the
breast and prevent lymphoedema.
• Withstands radiation better than implant based
reconstructions.
• With time the new breast behaves like the
other breast in terms of ptosis and
consistency.
• As a by-product patients abdomen gets tightened (abdominoplasty effect).
B. C. Ashok (*)
Department of Plastic Cosmetic Surgery, Manipal
hospital Old Airport road, Bengaluru, India
Plastic surgery Manipal University, Manipal, India
D. Sreekumar
Plastic surgery Resident (DNB), Manipal Hospital,
Bengaluru, India
• There is no risk of implant related complications like infections, capsule contractures, and
ALCL.
It has its own disadvantages like
• Long surgery, longer recovery time [1]
• Flap related complications may delay adjuvant treatment.
• Some amount of donor site morbidity is
expected.
• Microvascular expertise required when pedicled aps are not done.
• If there is radiation induced brosis of the new
breast, then there is nothing to fall back on.
Generally there are two methods of autolo-
gous reconstruction of breasts, pedicled aps and
free aps.
A pedicled ap is transferred to the defect while
still attached to the body by a pedicle carrying the
blood supply. Pedicled TRAM [2] and Latissimus
dorsi are the two aps used as pedicled aps. They
are not popular and not routinely used because,
pedicled TRAM has unreliable skin paddle leading
to healing problems and it morbid to abdominal
wall integrity. Latissimus dorsi has less volume,
hence whole breast reconstruction is difcult only
with latissimus except in small breasts and leads to
some amount of shoulder dysfunction.
Free aps in breast reconstruction have gained
popularity, because of many choices they offer,
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023
S. V. S. Deo (ed.), Breast Oncoplasty and Reconstruction,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5536-7_27
201
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B. C. Ashok and D. Sreekumar
less donor site morbidity, and because of recent
advances they have become safe, reliable, and
reproduceable.
In recent times there has been interest in a
third variety of reconstruction of breast by autologous fat transfer. But it requires many stages to
attain the desired volume, making it nancially
unviable for many [9].
27.1 Free Flaps Used
inAutologous
Reconstruction ofBreast
From the abdomen:
• DIEP: Deep inferior epigastric artery perfora-
tor ap.
• TRAM Flaps: Transverse rectus abdominus
Myocutaneous ap.
• SIEA Flap: Supercial inferior epigastric
artery ap.
From the Trunk:
• SGAP/IGAP: Superior/ Inferior gluteal artery
perforator ap.
• DCIA Flap: Deep inferior epigastric artery
perforator ap or Rubens ap.
From the Thighs:
• ALT: Anterolateral thigh ap.
• PAP: Profunda artery perforator ap.
• TUG ap: Transverse upper Gracilis ap.
27.2 Timing
Reconstruction can be done at the time of mastectomy (Immediate) or any time after the completion of adjuvant therapy(delayed).
27.3 Advantages
• As a by-product patients abdomen gets tightened (abdominoplasty effect).
• The donor site morbidity (hernia, abdominal
bulge) are less in DIEP.
27.4 Disadvantages
• Long surgery, longer recovery time.
• DIEP is a perforator based ap hence can have
variable anatomy.
• Flap related complications may delay adjuvant treatment.
• Microvascular expertise required.
• If there is radiation induced brosis of breast
then there is nothing to fall back on.
• Not possible if abdomen is scarred or in very
thin individuals.
27.5 Anatomy
Tissue
Skin and fat from the lower abdominal wall. The
reliable area crosses the midline. Zones 1, 2, and
3 are generally well perfused.
DIEP ap is a microvascular free ap utilises
tissue from lower abdomen. It is the gold standard in autologous reconstruction of breast
against which all other types of reconstruction
are compared and measured. DIEP stands for
Deep Inferior epigastric artery ap [3]. Free
TRAM is an earlier variant based on the same
vascular axis. TRAM stands for Transverse
Rectus Abdominus Myocutaneous ap.
All other aps are done only if DIEP is not
available for any reason like scarring, very thin
individual.
Innervation
Intercostal T11 and T12 dermatome via intercostal nerves. Not usually harvested as a sensory
ap. There are some who encourage this, but the
benet and outcome are unclear.
Blood Supply
The deep inferior epigastric artery and venae
comitantes via perforators through the rectus
muscle. The perforators range in size from
0.3mm to 1mm. Flaps can be harvested reliably
on a single large perforator system.
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203
Artery
Large calibre artery from 2 to 4mms.
Vein(s)
The venae are typically paired, and often join to a
common vessel at their draining point on the
external iliac. One vein is usually larger and comparable in calibre to the artery.
Pedicle Length
From the perforator point to the origin on the
external iliac measuring 10–12 cms. Very long
with signicant freedom to position Fig.27.1.
DIEP ap is harvested from lower abdomen
from umbilicus to groin crease. Flap contains
II
I
Fig. 27.1 Holm’s vascular zones
IV
III
skin and fat and NO RECTUS MUSCLE.Blood
supply for this ap is from perforators arising
from deep inferior epigastric artery(DIEA).
DIEA arises from external iliac artery at the
groin traverses supero-medially towards the
umbilicus, enters the rectus compartment lying
behind the rectus muscle. This artery gives two
sets of perforators one along the lateral border
another along the medial border of rectus muscle. There are an average 4 perforators. The bigger ones are the medial perforators nearer to the
umbilicus. The whole ap can be based on one
or two perforators. The veins follow the arterial
system and drain into external iliac vein. There
are two veins for most part of the course. Based
on vascularity the ap is divided into four zones
as below. Zone I is on the rectus muscle on the
same side as the pedicle, zone II lateral to it on
same side, zone III is on the rectus on the opposite side, zone IV is lateral segment on the opposite side [4]. Fig.27.2.
If only zone 1, 2, or 3 required then unilateral
DIEA system is adequate. If one has to recruit
zone 4 then opposite DIEA is also harvested and
additional intra ap anastomosis or second anastomosis like supercharging is required.
TRAM ap is also based on same vascular
axis but instead of dissecting the perforators,
whole segment of rectus muscle along with
underlying vessel is harvested. Based on how
much muscle is spared, TRAM can be MS0
(muscle sparing) where whole width of a segment of rectus is harvested. MS1 lateral third of
muscle is spared, MS2 lateral two third of muscle
is spread and MS3 where the whole muscle is
spared (DIEP) Picture 27.1.
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Fig. 27.2 DIE Pedicle
and perforators
B. C. Ashok and D. Sreekumar
Lateral perforators
Medial perforators
Deep inferior epigastric artery
Picture 27.1 Right- TRAM ap with muscle. Left- DIEP with perforator
27.6 Planning
Preoperatively a CT angiogram is helpful in visualising a suitable perforator and also to asses
midline crossover and communication between
supercial and deep inferior epigastric venous
system [5]. An acoustic doppler can also be used
to reconrm the perforator site on the skin.
Markings are done with patient standing.
Upper border of ap is just above umbilicus
(LINE1). Lateral extant is at anterior superior
iliac spine Point A, B. The lower border is
marked after a pinch test is done to see that abdomen closes without undue tension (LINE2)
Fig.27.3.
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LINE 1
205
In TRAM while elevating skin from lateral
to medial direction, at lateral rectus boarder,
anterior rectus sheath is incised and a segment
of muscle just below umbilicus is taken along
with the ap. Rest of ap harvest is similar to
DIEP.
A
LINE 2
Fig. 27.3 LINE 1: Upper incision. LINE2 lower incision. A, B: Anterior superior iliac spine
B
27.7 Harvest
Flap is harvested simultaneously while mastectomy is being done. Skin is elevated from lateral
to medial direction and once the preferred perforator is seen it is carefully traced through the rectus sheath and muscle to the parent DIE pedicle.
The pedicle which lies on the posterior aspect of
muscle is developed so as to facilitate tension
free anastomosis. Care is taken not to injure segmental nerves which supply rectus muscle. The
skin paddle of other side of hemiabdomen is elevated above rectus sheath. Sometimes supercial
inferior epigastric vein is taken on the opposite
side of vascular pedicle to improve venous drainage. Rest of abdominal skin is undermined to
facilitate tension free abdomen closure.
27.8 Recipient Area Preparation
The mastectomy cavity is prepared by creating
inframammary crease and lateral mammary
crease by taking 2-0 vicryl stitches. When internal mammary vessels are used for anastomosis it
is accessed by resecting fourth or fth costal cartilage. Thoracodorsal pedicle can also be used as
an alternative recipient vessels.
27.9 Flap Transfer
andAnastomosis
Flap is transferred and anastomosis is completed
using micro vascular technique under microscope. Drains are placed and inset is done to create a breast mound.
27.10 Abdomen Closure
In DIEP, anterior rectus sheath is closed drains
are placed umbilicus is relocated, abdomen is
closed in layers. In TRAM ap the defect in rectus sheath is reinforced with a proline mesh, rest
of closure is similar to DIEP ap Picture 27.2.
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Picture 27.2 Donor site after DIEP harvest
B. C. Ashok and D. Sreekumar
27.11 Post Operative Care
Flaps are monitored regularly for rst 5days for
signs of vascular insufciency. Patients are kept
warm, adequate hydration, anticoagulation,and
early mobilisation are recommended Picture
27.3.
Picture 27.3 Post-op result after mastectomy and reconstruction with DIEP ap
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207
27.12 Complications
• Flap related: Partial or complete ap loss,
haemorrhage, infections.
• Recipient site: Pneumothorax if IMA is used
for anastomosis, seromas.
• Donor site: Haemorrhage, infections, seromas, delayed wound healing, hernia and
abdominal bulge.
27.13 Secondary Procedures
Nipple areola is reconstructed after 6–9months
after nishing radiotherapy. This is done under
local anaesthesia nipple is done by various techniques but most common is C-V technique.
Areola is created by tattooing [6]..
Opposite side symmetrisation or lipoll can
also be done for asymmetry and enhancing the
aesthetics of breast but generally reserved till
6–9months is over and local tissue equilibrium is
reached.
27.14 Recent Advances
Sensory restoration: Most aps yield insensate
breasts. There have been attempts made to make
these reconstructed breasts sensate by co-opting
the sensory anterior (medial) cutaneous branch of
the third or fourth intercostal nerve in the chest to
either the 10th, 11th, or 12th sensory intercostal
nerve branch harvested with the contralateral
DIEP ap. [7].
Breast cancer related lymphoedema is devas-
tating consequence of axillary lymph node dissection. This can be prevented by simultaneous
transfer of vascularised lymph nodes at the time
of reconstructing the breast. While harvesting
DIEP a part of groin lymph node are harvested in
continuity with the ap along with supercial circumex iliac vessels. The ap is inset into the
mastectomy defect in such a way that the lymph
nodes lie in the axilla. A second anastomosis Is
done between SCI vessels in the axilla. The
transferred lymph nodes help in preventing
development of lymphoedema [8].
Breast reconstruction using autologous fat
transfer: advances in understanding fat transfer
has let to attempts to reconstruct whole breasts
using fat injections. The results have been encouraging. The drawback is it needs multiple sittings,
hence theatre time and other resources are to be
considered to adopt this method [9]..
Bilateral reconstructions: Risk reduction surgeries have increased the demand for bilateral
reconstructions, achieving symmetry is much
easy as both breasts are addressed simultaneously. It is a major undertaking needing a good
team. [10], [11], [12].
Acknowledgments Illustrations were created by Dr.
Dinkar Sreekumar.
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5. Teunis T, Heerma van Voss MR, Kon M, JFMM
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7. Beugels J, Cornelissen AJM, van Kuijk SMJ, Lataster
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