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80
A. K. Mackow
Fig. 4.9 Algorithm for
redo-pull-through type.
Modied from [69]
Stricture
Ischemia
of
pull-through
Transabdominal
Duhamel
vs
Swenson
pull-through
Colon twisted
Incorrectly
pulled
through
Fistula-in-ano/Perianal Abscess
Perianal abscesses occur most frequently in male
neonates and are thought to be due to inammation of relatively “deep” crypts leading to abscess
formation, predisposed by androgen excess
(Fig. 4.10) [83]. Fistula-in-ano may occur in
20–85% of these patients [83–85]. Although
these abscesses may drain spontaneously, incision and drainage with careful wound care may
prevent the formation of stula-in-ano. Watanabe
reported that only 34% of 97 patients treated nonoperatively developed a stula-in-ano [85].
Rosen’s report of 18 patients with perianal
abscess revealed that the 14 treated nonoperatively all developed a stula-in-ano [84]. Despite
the potential for development of stula-in-ano,
the debate over whether to intervene operatively
centers around that fact that these may heal spontaneously—Watanabe reported 42% resolved
after a single episode and Rosen reported 100%
resolution within 6 months [84, 85]. However,
Watanabe did report up to 3 or 4 recurrences of
stula-in-ano leading to eventual operative intervention in 6 out of 33 patients [85]. Another
report by Oh favors operative treatment, because
although one-third of 18 patients with stula-inano treated conservatively were followed for a
year without further inammatory sequelae,
compared to 12 with recurrent inammation,
they ultimately all underwent stulotomy to
achieve complete resolution of the stulae, with
no recurrence reported after 2year followup on
average [86]. MacDonald further reported that
Ganglia absent
Incorrect pathology
vs
secondary loss of ganglia
Transabdominal
endorectal
vs
Duhamel
pull-through
Fig. 4.10 Fistula-in-ano with lacrimal duct probe
through stulous tract
Ganglia present
Transanal
endorectal
pull-through
Colon dilated
Spasm
vs
tight cuff
recurrence was seen in only 3 of 31 patients
undergoing operative treatment of stulaes; all 3
had Crohn’s disease [83].
Perianal abscesses do not necessitate use of
oral antibiotics, and as diarrhea may predispose
to worsened problems with recurrent abscess
and stula-in-ano formation, should be avoided
in the absence of signs of immunosuppression
[84, 85].
4 Congenital andPediatric Anorectal Conditions
81
Anal Fissure
The pathophysiology of anal ssures is initiated
by mucosal tearing from the passage of hard
stool, potentially in the face of high resting anal
canal tone. The initial trauma leads to pain with
defecation, which may lead to withholding stool,
increasing absorption of water from the stool,
resulting in a greater stool burden, aggravating
the potential for repetitive trauma to the anal
mucosa. Over time, this builds up granulation tissue that results in “piles” or perianal skin tags
that signify the presence of constipation [87]. On
history, the child may be reported to cry when
passing stools, or have streaks of blood on the
outside of the stools. Physical examination may
reveal rectal bleeding, visible anal ssure or perianal skin tags; anal stenosis should be ruled out,
as dilation might be necessary. Treatment generally commences with use of laxatives with close
follow-up, but may escalate to use of topical
agents such as EMLA or nitroglycerin, though the
results have been variable [88, 89]. Other treatment modalities have been used with varying success, including botulinum toxin injection [90] or
even lateral internal sphincterotomy [91]. Once
the ssure has healed, perianal skin tags should
eventually resolve.
Rectal Prolapse
to limit use of dairy and increase ber, physical
therapy to focus on strengthening the pelvic oor,
and behavioral therapy to improve compliance
with various components of therapy and ensuring
adequate sit times for stooling [92]. When surgical intervention is needed, this may range from
sclerosant injection or mucosal cauterization to
submucosal suture placement to rectopexy (either
laparoscopic [94] or open [95]) or perineal resection. Complications following these procedures
may include mucosal or full-thickness prolapse
or worsening constipation.
Solitary Rectal Ulcer Syndrome (SRUS)
Though infrequent in children, SRUS seems to be
associated with constipation or rectal prolapse
[96], which corresponds to the purported ischemic nature of these lesions from chronic trauma.
These patients present with rectal bleeding and
anorectal pain with excessive mucous discharge,
with ulceration often noted of the anterior rectal
wall, with histology showing an obliteration of
the lamina propria and hypertrophy and disordered growth of the smooth muscle into that layer
[96, 97]. These symptoms generally resolve with
use of laxatives and a high-ber diet, although
these patients may require use of rectal sulfasalazine or steroids and on occasion, rectopexy [97].
This is a problematic, though relatively rare condition that is most frequently related to chronic
constipation, though other associated conditions
may predispose to prolapse, such as cystic brosis, Hirschsprung disease or other gastrointestinal and connective tissue disorders [91]. There is
a high correlation of behavioral and psychiatric
disorders with prolapse—54% of patients without concomitant predisposing conditions [92].
Three types of prolapse are possible—mucosal,
full-thickness and a sliding hernia of the anterior
wall of the rectum [93]. It is commonly self-limited, in that treatment of the underlying cause of
constipation may relieve straining, which in turn
decreases the episodes of prolapse. Treatment
ranges from use of laxatives and dietary changes
Sexual Abuse
In the mid 1980s, two British pediatricians published their ndings from diagnosing several
hundred children with sexual abuse. Among
their chief ndings were that 83% of boys and
25% of girls diagnosed with sexual abuse showed
anal tears and obvious trauma in over half as
well as reex anal dilatation—a dynamic relaxation of the internal and external anal sphincters
when the buttocks are spread, such that the
examiner could see into the rectum—in over
40% [98]. Over time, concerns have been raised
about whether reex anal dilatation might been
too nonspecic a sign of sexual abuse [99–101],
82
A. K. Mackow
with the suggestion made that it may be seen in
children with chronic constipation [100] or neurologic diseases associated with constipation or
need for a bowel management regimen [101].
Interestingly, although a study of children with
chronic constipation showed that 20–66% of
children with varying levels of fecal loading
showed a visibly relaxed external sphincter on
examination, there were still a signicant number (109 of 129) of these children who did not
show any sphincteric dilation on examination
[100]. In fact, evaluation of a cohort of patients
presenting with a need for ano-genital examination showed that 6% of 232 patients showed
signs of reex anal dilatation, but only 1%
showed this sign without predisposing factors to
suggest chronic constipation (primarily based on
history of constipation and use of suppositories
or enemas). When Hobbs compared sexually
abused patients to physically abused patients, he
showed that reduced anal tone, ssures and scars
as well as perineal venous congestion, especially
when there was more than one of these signs,
were far more prevalent in children found to
have sustained sexual abuse [99].
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study on non-abused children. Forensic Sci Int.
2014;238:22–5.
Perioperative Management
SeanJosephLangenfeld
5
Introduction
Thirty-ve years ago, a patient undergoing anorectal surgery could expect to spend several days
in the hospital recovering afterward. In the modern era, more than 90% of anorectal surgeries are
performed in the ambulatory setting [1]. In order
to ensure excellent outcomes from outpatient surgery, it is essential that the surgeon employ a
thoughtful approach to the patient’s perioperative
care. This process starts with the detailed ofce
evaluation of patient-reported symptoms, moves
on to the decision to operate with a thorough preoperative assessment, and continues through the
patient’s surgery and recovery.
This chapter contains an in-depth discussion
of important considerations for the perioperative
care of patients undergoing anorectal surgery,
including a review of the supporting evidence
and ongoing controversies. The aim of this chapter is to provide the surgeon with a framework to
guide perioperative decision-making. Further
reading can also be found within the American
Society of Colon and Rectal Surgeons (ASCRS)
S. J. Langenfeld ()
Department of Surgery,
University of Nebraska Medical Center,
Omaha, NE, USA
e-mail: sean.langenfeld@unmc.edu
practice guidelines for ambulatory anorectal
surgery [2]. Of note, Chap. 6 contains a separate
discussion of operative care including patient
positioning and options for anesthesia.
Preoperative Care
When caring for patients with anorectal disease,
the rst step occurs in the ofce setting, where
the surgeon must perform a thorough history and
physical examination. This includes an in-depth
review of the patient’s medications, past medical
and surgical history, and lifestyle issues, which
may be contributing to the current pathology. A
detailed anorectal examination should be performed in the ofce, including an external inspection, digital exam, anoscopy, and rigid
proctoscopy when appropriate.
Patient Education
Once the patient’s problem has been identied
and a decision has been made to proceed with
anorectal surgery, the next step is preparing the
patient for a safe and effective surgery.
Important considerations will be listed below,
but this process begins by helping patients
understand their disease process and treatment
© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019
D. E. Beck et al. (eds.), Fundamentals of Anorectal Surgery,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65966-4_5
87
88
S. J. Langenfeld
options. This education often includes pictures,
diagrams, and a summary of ndings using
layperson’s terminology. The planned intervention should then be explained in detail,
including what the patient should expect
regarding the day of surgery, the associated
pain, recovery time, activity restrictions, and
potential time off from school or work. This
process is often aided by handouts, which can
be individually produced by the surgeon
(Table5.1) or purchased from the ASCRS [3].
Table 5.1 Patient handout on anal condyloma
Condyloma Acuminata
Condyloma Acuminata or “anal warts” occur outside
the anal opening as well as inside the anal canal. They
vary in size and quantity, but can become large and
extensive over time if left untreated. They are caused
by the Human Papilloma Virus (HPV), and are the
result of direct sexual contact with an infected
individual. They also occur in the genital area, and can
sometimes spread to the anal area from the groin. Anal
intercourse is not necessary to develop anal warts
Symptoms
These lesions are often non-tender, and can go
unnoticed by the infected individual. The most
common symptoms are itching, anal irritation, and
mild bleeding. If the lesions are large enough, there
may be palpable lumps. Please see the attached photo,
which illustrates a common appearance of these warts
Treatment
All anal warts require removal to prevent progression.
If the lesions are small and external, they may be
treated medically in the doctor’s ofce with several
different topical medications. They often require
multiple treatments over time to eradicate. If the warts
are extensive and/or present in the anal canal, they
may require surgery. The most common approach is to
fulgurate the warts. This is an outpatient procedure
involving electrocautery that requires regional or
general anesthesia
Follow up
The doctor will need to see the patient at regular
intervals for several months to eradicate any remaining
or recurrent warts, as well as document wart resolution
Resolution/recurrence
Recurrent condyloma is common, and can be
frustrating for the patient. The Human Papilloma Virus
can lay dormant for extended periods of time. Infected
skin may appear normal, but still has the potential to
cause future problems. We recommend that patients
practice safe sex, and abstain from sexual contact with
infected individuals. We also recommend that sexual
partners be evaluated for warts, even if they are not
experiencing symptoms
Fitness forSurgery
An assessment of patient risk begins with a
review of the patient’s medical history. Specic
health concerns include a history of cardiopulmonary disease, liver and kidney disease, functional limitations, and signicant obesity. To help
with risk assessment, the American Society of
Anesthesiologists (ASA) Score is typically
employed (Table5.2) [4]. While the ASA score is
helpful, it should not be used alone to determine
tness for surgery, but in conjunction with more
patient-specic information.
Historically, routine preoperative labs were
obtained in preparation for surgery, including
Table 5.2 American Society of Anesthesiologists
Physical Status Classication System
ASA PS
Classication Denition
ASA I A normal
healthy
patient
ASA II A patient
with mild
systemic
disease
ASA III A patient
with severe
systemic
disease
Examples, including, but
not limited to:
Healthy, non-smoking,
no or minimal alcohol
use
Mild diseases only
without substantive
functional limitations.
Examples include (but
not limited to): current
smoker, social alcohol
drinker, pregnancy,
obesity (30<BMI<40),
well-controlled DM/
HTN, mild lung disease
Substantive functional
limitations; One or more
moderate to severe
diseases. Examples
include (but not limited
to): poorly controlled
DM or HTN, COPD,
morbid obesity (BMI
≥40), active hepatitis,
alcohol dependence or
abuse, implanted
pacemaker, moderate
reduction of ejection
fraction, ESRD
undergoing regularly
scheduled dialysis,
premature infant PCA
<60weeks, history
(>3months) of MI,
CVA, TIA, or CAD/
stents
5 Perioperative Management
89
Table 5.2 (continued)
ASA PS
Classication Denition
ASA IV A patient
with severe
systemic
disease that
is a
constant
threat to
life
ASA V A moribund
patient who
is not
expected to
survive
without the
operation
ASA VI A declared
brain-dead
patient
whose
organs are
being
removed
for donor
purposes
Examples, including, but
not limited to:
Examples include (but
not limited to): recent
(<3months) MI, CVA,
TIA, or CAD/stents,
ongoing cardiac
ischemia or severe valve
dysfunction, severe
reduction of ejection
fraction, sepsis, DIC,
ARD or ESRD not
undergoing regularly
scheduled dialysis
Examples include (but
not limited to): ruptured
abdominal/thoracic
aneurysm, massive
trauma, intracranial bleed
with mass effect,
ischemic bowel in the
face of signicant cardiac
pathology or multiple
organ/system dysfunction
electrolytes, a complete blood count, and coagulation studies. In addition, physicians ordered
routine chest X-rays and electrocardiograms for
older patients. These tests were quite costly, and
often did very little to improve the safety and risk
stratication of the patient. Currently, the ASA
and the ASCRS both recommend the avoidance
of routine labs and imaging, instead tailoring
the scheduling of these tests to the individual
patient’s risk prole [4, 5]. Several studies show
that this selective approach is safe, and results in
signicant cost savings [6, 7].
Choosing aLocation forSurgery
As mentioned in the introduction, most anorectal
surgery can be performed in the ambulatory setting, either within a hospital-based operating room
or at an outpatient surgery center. Most ASA I and
II patients can undergo ambulatory surgery with
high levels of safety and efcacy, along with select
ASA III patients [2, 8, 9]. It should be noted, how-
ever, that many ambulatory surgery centers have
restrictions related to patient age and ASA scores
of 3 or higher, so some patients will be required to
undergo surgery in the hospital setting even if the
plan is for same- day dismissal.
Other factors specic to the patient must also
be considered, including the presence of a difcult airway, nancial constraints, and the patient’s
social support structure. Procedure-specic factors including equipment availability and case
complexity must also be considered [2].
Management ofHome Medications
A detailed review of the patient’s medication list,
including prescriptions, over-the-counter medications, and herbal supplements should be performed.
Most medications can be continued through surgery
at the patient’s normal dose and interval, including
beta-blockers and oral steroids. In general, it is not
necessary to provide supplemental beta-blockade in
addition to the patient’s home dose. Similarly, there
is no proven benet to supplemental “stress-dose”
steroids, and continuation of the patient’s regular
dose of Prednisone is adequate.
For diabetic patients, consideration must be
given to the risk of lactic acidosis associated with
perioperative metformin use. This problem is rare
in the absence of renal impairment [10], but the
product’s website advises against perioperative
use [11], and metformin is typically held for 48h
prior to surgery.
Anticoagulants and anti-platelet agents must
be judiciously managed based on the risk associated with drug cessation and the anticipated
degree of surgical bleeding. In general, warfarin
is held for 5–7days prior to surgery, without a
need to routinely check INR on the day of surgery. Clopidogrel is also typically held for 7days
prior to surgery. Of note, it is not safe to hold
clopidogrel if the patient has experienced a myocardial infarction within the last 6 months, or
placement of a drug-eluting stent within the last
90
S. J. Langenfeld
year [12]. In these cases, the surgeon has the
option of delaying non-urgent surgery or proceeding on clopidogrel with great caution.
Aspirin Use
Aspirin (81mg) deserves specic mention, as is
taken by many patients for primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease, preexisting disease, or indwelling cardiac stents.
Traditionally, it has been held for 7 days when
possible, and selectively continued for patients
who have had recent myocardial infarctions or
cardiac stents. In this latter population, cessation
is associated with high rates of stent thrombosis
and sudden cardiac death [12].
The safety and efcacy of aspirin use during
abdominal surgery and urologic procedures have
been extensively evaluated, but most studies were
either retrospective or underpowered to detect
bleeding complications [13–16]. In general, these
studies concluded that continuing aspirin during
the perioperative period was safe, and discontinuation could lead to a prothrombotic state [17, 18].
The 2014 POISE II trial was a large multicenter randomized controlled trial focused on the
perioperative initiation or continuation of aspirin
in major non-cardiac surgery [19]. It concluded
that aspirin use did not improve death, myocardial infarction, or stroke rates when compared to
placebo, but it did result in a higher risk of major
bleeding (4.6% vs. 3.8%, HR 1.23; P=0.04). Of
note, patients with recent bare-metal stents or
drug-eluting stents within the last year were
excluded, and the dose of 200mg exceeds what
most patients take for primary or secondary prevention. In addition, a 0.8% absolute difference
in major bleeding may not be clinically relevant
to a patient undergoing hemorrhoidectomy.
Unfortunately, there is no high-quality literature specic to aspirin-related bleeding in anorectal surgery. Therefore, it can be held based on
surgeon’s preference for a week prior to surgery.
For patients with bare metal or drug eluting cardiac stents, regardless of how long the stents have
been in place, aspirin therapy should be continued through the perioperative period, which is
generally safe but can be associated with a
slightly higher risk of bleeding.
Bowel Preparation
The use of oral antibiotics (OBP) and/or mechanical bowel prep (MBP) for abdominal and pelvic
surgery is a topic of hot debate among colorectal
experts. At the time of this publication, the pendulum has swung back in favor of a combined
OBP/MBP for colectomies, but the issue remains
unsettled, and conicting reports continue to
arise within the literature.
For anorectal surgery, there is no evidence
regarding the proper bowel preparation. Previous
textbooks recommended full mechanical bowel
prep prior to complex anorectal surgeries [20, 21],
and this issue is continuously debated without
consensus. It is the author’s preference to have
patients self-administer enemas on the evening
prior to surgery, and again on the morning of surgery, using either tap water or commercially available enemas. This measure is taken not with the
intent of decreasing surgical site infection, but
rather to eliminate stool from the operative eld
and improve visualization. If patients are unable
or unwilling to perform enemas, they can often be
performed in the operating room, or completely
omitted depending on the proposed procedure.
Editor’s note: It is one of the editor’s (SDW)
preference to use full mechanical cathartic preparation prior to circumferential sleeve advancement procedures, and other select complex
operations. Another editor (DEB) uses a limited
mechanical preparation for TAMIS and other
complex anorectal procedures.
Perioperative Care
Chapter 6 will discuss operative and anesthetic
techniques, including patient positioning, options
for anesthesia, and the use of short and longacting local agents. This section will focus on the
other elements of the operation, including the use
of antibiotics, prevention of deep vein thrombosis
(DVT), and management of intravenous uids.