Методология научного творчества = Methodogy of scientific research. Учебно-методическое пособие
.pdfSTEP 4 DEFINING THE METHOD OF THE RESEARCH
Types of research
Research can be classified into two main classes [18]:
1.Fundamental or basic research. It is also called theoretical research, leads to a new theory or a new property of matter or even the existence of a new matter, the knowledge of which has not been known or reported earlier.
2.Applied research solves certain problems employing well known and accepted theories and principles
The basic and applied topics can have the quantitative or qualitative solution or even both. Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.
The following are some of the challenges for theresearcher
[18]:
• Problems of sampling.
• Reliability and accuracy of the obtained data information.
• The ethics of conducting research.
•Physicalaccessandskillsrequiredtousethetechnologies involved.
• The changed chronology of interaction resulting from asynchronous communication
The methods used in scientific research depend not only on the subject itself but also on the level of research: empirical or theoretical.
For the empirical level of research, such methods are characteristic:
- observation (Observation is a way of knowing the objective world, based on the direct perception of objects and phenomena with the help of sense organs without interference in the process on the part of the researcher.)
- description (fixing data with the help of certain notation systems adopted in science. The description as a method of
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scientific research is produced both by ordinary language and by special means that make up the language of science (symbols, signs, matrixes, graphs, etc.).)
measuring (The physical process of determining the numerical value of a certain value by comparing it with the standard.)
-comparing (establishment of a distinction between the objectsofthematerialworldorthepresenceinthemofacommon; is carried out both with the help of the senses and with the help of special devices).
-experiment (one of the spheres of human practice, in which the validity of the hypotheses put forward is tested or the laws of the objective world are revealed.)
-modeling (the study of the object by creating and exploring its model (copy) replacing the original, with certain aspects, of interest to the researcher)
For the theoretical level of research, methods are:
-Formalization (the reflection of the results of thinking in precise concepts or statements, that is, the construction of abstract mathematical models that reveal the essence of the studied processes of reality)
-Axiomatization (the construction of theories on the basis of axiom-assertions, the proof of the truth of which is not required.)
-Analysis(actualormentaldismembermentofanintegralobject into its component parts)
-Synthesis (restore the object as a concrete whole in all the diversity of its manifestations).
-Induction (the general conclusion about the properties of objectsandphenomenaisbasedonindividualfactsorparticular premises.)
-Deduction (transition from general reasoning or judgments to particulars.)
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-Generalization (the logical process of transition from single to general, from less general to more general knowledge, while establishing common properties and characteristics of the objects under study.)
-Analogy (inference, in the course of which, on the basis of the similarity of objects in certain properties, connections, a conclusion is drawn about their similarity in other properties and connections.)
-Mathematics (penetration of the apparatus of mathematical logic into natural and other sciences).
-Abstraction (mental distraction from nonessential properties, connections, relations of objects, and highlighting of several aspects of the researcher's interest)
Types of Research Studies
There are three major types of research designs.
1.Observational research: Observation is more than simply noticing something. It involves perception (becoming aware of something by means of the senses) and the recognition of the subject’s importance or significance.
2.Correlationalresearch:aquantitativemethodofresearchwith 2 or more quantitative variables from the same group of participants, & the aim is to determine if there is a relationship (or covariation) between the 2 variables (that is, a similarity in pattern of scores between the two variables, not a difference between their means)[21].
3.Experiments: manipulation and controlled testing to understand causal processes. Generally, one or more variables are manipulated to determine their effect on a dependent variable [22].
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Scientific observation
There is no activity aimed at transforming, changing the objects of cognition.
Scientific observation (in contrast to everyday observations) is characterized by a number of features [23]:
-purpose (observation should be carried out to solve the task of research, and the attention of the observer should be fixed only on the phenomena connected with this task);
-planned (observation should be carried out strictly in accordance with the fusion compiled on the basis of the research task);
-activity (the researcher must actively seek, highlight the moments he needs in the observed phenomenon, using his knowledgeandexperienceforthispurpose,usingvarioustechnical means of observation).
There is systematic and unsystematic observation. Nonsystematic observation is carried out during the field study. For a researcher who conducts non-systematic observation, it is important not to fix the causal dependencies and a rigorous description of the phenomenon, but to create a generalized picture of the behavior of the individual or group under certain conditions [23].
Systematicobservationiscarriedoutaccordingtoadefinite plan. The researcher distinguishes features of behavior (variables) and classifies features of the external environment[23]
There is continuous and selective observation. Observation can be carried out directly or with the help of
observational devices and means of fixing the results.
The procedure of the observation method consists of the following stages: determine
1) the subject of observation (behavior), the object (a separate individual or group), the situation;
2) a method of monitoring and recording data (the purpose is to compensate the natural limitations of the human senses, to improve the accuracy and objectivity of the observation results);
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3)an observation plan (situation - object - time);
4)the method of processing the results;
5)processing and interpretation of the information
received.
In daily activities and in science, observations should lead to results that do not depend on the will, feelings, and desires of the scientist.
Can observations be wrong? Yes, it can. Observation is based on perception and thereforeis not a purely passivereflection of the world. Consciousness not only reflects the world but also creates it.
In the process of such active mastering of the world, mistakes, errors and even simple illusions of the senses are possible, which also cannot be ignored.
On the one hand, different equipment is intended to serve as a guarantee of objectivity (it does not get bored, it does not get distracted, does not go to sleep, fixes all the results). On the other hand, the results of observation are processed by a person, which gives rise to subjectivity.
The first necessary, although insufficient condition for scientific observation is that the collected data under the same conditions can be obtained by another researcher.
But even the same results obtained by many observers do not guarantee the objectivity, because mistakes and illusions can be attributed to different people.
Observation is conducted not only once, but systematically with respect to the same person and with respect to the same phenomenon in many individuals and in different, most characteristic situations.
Self-observation
There are two methods of self-observation: analysis, or attempts at analysis, that is, attempts to find the answers to the
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questions: upon what does a certain thing depend, and why does it happen; andthe secondmethod is registering,simply 'recording'in one's mind what is observed at the moment[24].
Peculiarities of self-observation in psychology [25]:
1)Emotional Intelligence interpersonal (ability to understand others) and intrapersonal (self-reflection generating a deep understanding of oneself, one’s emotions and reactions);
2)Empathy (reaction to observing or imagining other people’s experiences
3)Psychological Mindedness (person's ability to see relationships among thoughts, feelings, and actions, with the goal of learning the meanings and causes of his experiences and behavior)
4)Alexithymia (lack of words for feelings)
5)Mindfulness (conscious attempts at reducing cognitive elaboration in order to observe things as they appear, setting any preconceptions aside as to how they should be.)
6)Metacognition (thinking about thinking)
7)Mentalization(integrationofdevelopmentallyearlierstates of mind
8)Affect consciousness (primary motivating forces in the psyche, along with drives, homeostatic life support processes, and pain)
Сorrelationalresearchexaminesthecovariationoftwoor more variables. For example, the early research on cigarette smoking examines the covariation of cigarette smoking and a variety of lung diseases. These two variables, smoking, and lung disease were found to covary together[25].
Correlational research can be accomplished by a variety of techniques which include the collection of empirical data. Often times, correlational research is considered a type of observational research as nothing is manipulated by the experimenter or individual conducting the research. The researcher only collects
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the data on the two variables. Nothing is controlled by the researchers [25].
A survey is a data gathering method that is utilized to collect, analyze and interpret the views of a group of people from a target population. Surveys have been used in various fields of research.[26]
Cases of surveys application
1.Intheearlystagesofthestudy,intheprocessofworking on the research plan, only interviewing is used. With the help of these interviews, variables relating to the problem under study can be established, and working hypotheses can be put forward. In this case,onlycompetentpersonsarequestioned,whocangivedetailed information on the issues of interest to the researcher
2.The survey acts as the primary means of collecting primary information-to obtain data that allows one to measure the relationship between the variables studied.
3.The survey serves to clarify, expand and control data obtained by other methods, and by some form of questioning. In the latter case, interview materials are often supplemented with questionnaires.
The survey method can be divided into 2 types: written and oral - questionnaires and interviews.
Types of interviews:
Standardized, semi-standardized and free
In a standardized interview, the wording of questions and their sequence are defined in advance, they are the same for all respondents. The interviewer is not allowed to reformulate any questions or introduce new ones or change their order. They are asked.
Non-standardized, free or non-directional interview. In this interview, the scientist follows only the general plan, formulated according to the tasks of the study, asking questions about the situation. Due to its flexibility, it has a better, in
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comparison with a standardized interview, contact between a scientist and a respondent.
Semi-standardized, or focused, interview. When conducting this type of interview, the scientist is guided by a list of both strictly necessary and possible questions.
Each of these types of interviews has its advantages and disadvantages.
The interview type depends on the research objectives. If it is necessary to study the essence of the problem more deeply, an intensive interview is conducted
If a statistical survey is to be compiled on the basis of interview responses, an interview with stereotyped answers is used.
In this case, the sample is representative; select individuals that are characteristic of a social group whose problems are being investigated.
Basic rules for preparing interview questions:
•Use of low-spread foreign words, special terms, words with uncertain meaning, which hamper the work of respondents, should be avoided;
•you cannot ask unnecessarily lengthy questions, since the respondentmaynotrememberthementirelyandansweronlyapart or even refuse to answer at all;
•preference is given to specific issues before abstract or generalized. It is better to ask a few specific questions within one topic than one question like "How do you usually act ...";
•when it is necessary to obtain information of a debating nature or not completely acceptable for public expression by the respondent, it is advisable to attach a masking tint to the question. This is achieved by introducing into the discussion an appropriate imaginarysituationconcerningtheintervieweehimself(say,inthe future) or an indefinite person (for example, "one student", "the boy of your circle", etc.), identification with which would not be difficult or distemper or embarrass;
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•questionsthatarerelativelycomplex,uninterestingforthe respondent,orperceivedastoopersonal,shouldnotbetakentothe beginning of the interview. It is known that the further the interviewee is involved in the interview, the more difficult it is for him to refuse to continue the conversation;
•when a respondent is not competent enough, it is sometimes desirable to make an appropriate foreword, explaining to him in examples or in other words the material in the question.
•should strive to ensure that all options offered by the answers were equally acceptable to the respondent, did not mean for him a loss of prestige, an insult to self-esteem;
•the psychological consistency of questions is more important to the interview than the logical sequence. Sometimes it is recommended to deviate from the logical order in order to avoid the influence of answers to previous questions or in order to prevent the exhaustion of a respondent developing with a monotonous mental activity.
Advantages of the interview
•there are almost no questions without answers;
•uncertain or contradictory answers can be clarified;
•itispossibletoobservetherespondentandrecordnotonly his verbal responses but also non-verbal reactions;
•the information received is fuller, deeper and more reliable than the questionnaire.
Disadvantages
•low efficiency,
•significant time,
•the need for a large number of interviewers,
•theimpossibilityofitsuseinsituationsofshort-termmass
surveys.
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Questionnaires
Questionnaires can be paper-based, or electronic.
Structured questionnaires are based predominantly on closed questions which produce data that can be analyzed quantitatively for patterns and trends. The agenda is entirely predetermined by the evaluator and provides little flexibility for respondents to qualify their answers[27].
Do you like football?
-Yes
-No
Unstructured questionnaires, whilst still having a structured sequence and focus predetermined by the evaluator, are based on open questions allowing respondents the freedom to answer in their own words and therefore to provide the greater qualification in their response.
Do you like football& Answer__________________________
Semi-structured questionnaires take a mixed approach. Do you like football&
1)Yes
2)No
3)____________
"Dialogues", answers are made up of answers from imaginary persons.
Scale questions answers lie in the scaling of something. Table questions that require a response in the form of
filling out a table.
Requirements to the questionnaire:
•It is necessary to give instructions for completing the questionnaire;
•On the title page of the questionnaire there should be a title reflecting the topic or problem of the survey, the name of the
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