Exclavity under globalization. Selected works
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Population and social groups in the transition economy of Kaliningrad
Post-soviet enterprises as socio-economic actors and partners in interaction
Apart from few exceptions, the situation in former Soviet enterprises in the Kaliningrad region differs little from a similar situation in other regions of Russia. Privatisation has divided the staff of such enterprises into two unequal groups: the administration and the remaining personnel. The collision of these two groups in a struggle for property rights in the process of share subscription in almost all enterprises has led to a total victory of the administrations. So, the administration has secured the controlling block of stock, and together with it a right to all the decision-mak- ing concerning the fate of the enterprise in future. The handover of property rights to the former administration and employees of the enterprises in practice has given the insiders all control over former soviet enterprises and brought the situation to a complete deadlock for any outside investor entering into a dialogue of partnership. The insiders' dilemma is that they cannot or do not want to cede their right of control over the company's assets, and without doing it they will not be able to convince the outsiders to invest into the enterprise in question.
Besides, the former directors, now enterprise owners, lack economic motivation, the traits of a true entrepreneur, the personal qualities and special knowledge for effective management of the company in free market conditions.
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CULTURAL POLICY*
In Europe, culture is now an important factor of development and integration. The construction of a community identity is linked with the development of its culture and based on its history and traditions. EU supports the spreading of culture and history of various regions and nations, the conservation of cultural heritage, cultural exchange8 and artistic and literary creations. The dialogue and co-operation with other world cultures are promoted. Cooperation has been developed between different regions such fields as historical, architectural, industrial or craft heritage (urban, archaeological, religious, military, etc).
The different cultural components are artistic and literary works, education, research, citizenship, heritage, environment, democracy or the quality of life. The development of the components of citizenship and democracy is a great part of a national culture. Civic education consists of "a set of practices and activities aimed at making young people and adults better equipped to take an active part in democratic life exercising their rights and responsibility"'. The development of citizenship has four main dimensions: political (political rights), social (solidarity), economic (the rights to work and to a minimum subsistence level) and cultural dimensions (awareness of a common cultural heritage).
The cultural sector was highly developed in the USSR and today the networks of cultural institutions are still active despite financial problems. But this sector must be given support in order to maintain its activities. The development of the cultural sector today is a challenge for the Kaliningrad region. Different aspects of it are:
Kaliningrad has had a turbulent history, many nations have occupied this territory, each of these nations left a part of their culture and all this caused a large stratification. The inhabitants of the Kaliningrad oblast today should value this heritage and integrate it in their culture.
* Klemeshev A. and others. Cultural policy. Kaliningrad 2010: Concepts, prospects and recommendations for a global development plan. University Pierre Mendes France; Kaliningrad state University.- Tacis, Grenoble, 2000.
Cultural policy
the population of Kaliningrad come from various regions of Russia and should respect each other’s different traditions.
the Kaliningrad oblast is a Russian exclave inside the EU.
In addition, this region was a closed for region a long period. Now the region has to build its international relations, first and foremost with the neighbouring states and the states of the Baltic Sea region.
The situation today is that of transition, offering opportunities and presenting challenges.
Experts of the Council of Europe are aware of the necessity to connect the cultural development in Russia with the economic and social development of the country. They believe it is necessary to clarify the links between the federal level and other levels (those of republics, regions, and communes). Russia developed the Federal programme "The protection and development of arts and culture" in 1993-1995, and so the network of cultural institutions was preserved. Keeping up traditions is a task and an important objective of the Russian cultural policy.
The transition period could be a great opportunity to develop a new development model in accordance with the needs of the society. The transition period is a bridge between the previous system and the new system. The new system could not exist without reference to the previous system. Components of the former system could be changed to the advantage of the construction of the new model. It is especially easy when the education level of the population is high.
Whenever the future of the Kaliningrad oblast is under discussion it is usually associated with the development of the region as a free (special) economic zone (SEZ). The course of events and tendencies of the economic and political life have led the advocates of the Special Economic Zone to the following conclusion: the Kaliningrad oblast is an integral part of Russia. This particular principle determines the nature of structural changes in the regional economy, the role played by the oblast in the all-Russian economic process and the policy of the state in this region. It is quite obvious that all the reforms of the Special Economic zone are only feasible if the population of the region is psychologically and profession-
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ally prepared to participate in them, and the formation of social awareness largely depends upon the existing cultural environment. Thus, cultural policy in the Kaliningrad region should reflect the interests of the state and serve the people's needs. Then, logically, the basic principle of such a policy must be preservation and development of Russian culture, aimed at strengthening Russia’s presence in this region. According to another paradigm the Kaliningrad oblast is both a cultural centre and a source of tensions. If it hadn't been so, there would never have existed an endless stream of scientific and pseudo scientific research works published in Germany, Lithuania, Poland and other countries: the existence of the Kaliningrad oblast is a challenge to the Western European civilization. A. J. Kuznetsov writes: "all of us have a faint idea about how to find a compromise between two extremes: an enclave that is strongly influenced by its neighbours and the one that is self-suffi- cient and opposed to them in terms of culture...".
The first development path might lead to Kaliningraders becoming "westernized" to a high degree, an almost inevitable conflict with Moscow (accusations of separatism). The second one means tensions with the neighbours. But the existence the Kaliningrad oblast is impossible without good relations both with the Federal Centre and other countries bordering on the region. In Mr Kuznetsov's opinion a cultural program, tailor-made for the oblast, could be put on the list of the programmes, supervised by the President. This programme could achieve three major goals. First, the cultural development of the region that would prevent the Kaliningrad "island" from drifting away from the Russian cultural “mainland”. Secondly, consolidations of Russian hold on this region. Thirdly, the region should live in harmony with its neighbours.
In the Kaliningrad oblast, the very meaning of "preservation of culture" is somewhat different from that in any other part of Russia. Originally German, it was undoubtedly influenced by the cultures of other peoples who lived in this territory: Poles, Lithuanians, Swiss, French and Austrians who immigrated to the region in the XVIII century, Magyars and Mennonites from different countries came to this corner of Europe seeking refuge from religious perse-
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cution. Vestiges from those times are buildings of a secular and religious character and a distinctive landscape created by industrious people. Today, representatives of a hundred nationalities inhabit the oblast but Russians constitute the majority (78%).
Coming from different parts of the Soviet Union, these people brought with them their traditions, customs, particular behaviour patterns and skills. Folklore and national traditions have created an interesting cultural ground that is part of the people's everyday life being reflected in their mentality.
There is another important aspect in the culture preservation activities: restoration of architectural monuments and memorials. Among historic buildings there are many churches. Many of them are now used by various confessions, but mainly by the Russian Orthodox Church. The transfer of churches from one confession to another is quite common in Europe where, in the course of the Reformation, many Roman Catholic churches became Protestant ones. The Koenigsberg Cathedral was originally a Roman Catholic Church, but it became Lutheran after the conversion of the whole of Eastern Prussian Lutheran faith. Insignificant changes were made in the outward architectural design of the churches, though their interior became more ascetic. In the mainland Russia there is no similar process, and Orthodox churches bear little resemblance to protestant ones. Therefore, what is taking place is not a mere restoration but transformation as well.
The interior of the concert hall of the Kaliningrad philharmonic society has been changed, but the atmosphere after the renovation is still a very special one. The Koenigsberg Cathedral that is still being restored now displays new architectural elements - such as an Orthodox and a Lutheran chapels, I. Kant’s museum established with the assistance of I. Kant State University of Russia, historic museums of the Cathedral and Kneiphof, a concert hall in the Wallenrod Library. Since October 1998, the Cathedral has become a new spiritual and cultural centre, with a lot of intellectual activities taking place under its newly restored roof.
Cultural development should be regarded as a complex process. The current analysis of cultural life in the oblast shows that bureaucratic administrative structures hamper if not stifle, many
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good initiatives. Professional art and popular art have their internal laws of development and their management using old bureaucratic methods is not appropriate. As a positive example, the Regional Art Centre was detached from the Committee on Culture and Historic Heritage in May, 1994. All professional art establishments left the committee and are managed by a Board of Directors, implementing projects combining various genres and kinds of arts, thus reaching a new stage of cultural life. This change in the organizational pattern in the activities of art institutions promotes the realization of principles related to the preservation and development of Russian culture in the oblast.
One more principle has to be realized for a special economic zone to become reality and for the oblast to become a region of cooperation equally important to the state and its citizens: it is important to extend the influence of Russian culture over the neighbouring countries in order to develop an attractive image of the Russian people and the Russian state. An active cultural policy in the Baltic States is of paramount importance for the Russian communities in these states because it helps to preserve the Russian cultural mentality and relations with the historical motherland. Properly organized cultural relations with the neighbouring states promote confidence, interest in and respect for the native country. "Days of culture of the Kaliningrad region" in Lithuania fully proved it. Similar projects will definitely be initiated.
The development and support of associations, preserving the traditional regional Russian culture represented in the oblast, would be of great interest and very motivating. This could be a good way for the residents of the oblast to rediscover their roots and revive their present day culture. All the countries now discover that traditions and roots are very important for accepting the current way of life and developing new traditions. The impact of the transition is very hard on people and the construction of a strong identity is decisive for the restructuring of the society and the individual. Economic and social development cannot exist without human development, with all its components.
The European programmes such as "city-twinning" (twinning cities of the Kaliningrad region with other cities in Russia), "Raph-
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ael" (devoted to cultural heritage) or REGIS II (assistance programme implemented by the Council of Europe in the ultra-periph- eral regions such as Guadeloupe, Martinique, Guyana and Reunion, the Azores, Madeira or the Canary Islands in order to develop tourism and culture) are of great interest for Kaliningrad. Many programmes initiated by the Council of Europe (Cultural Heritage Convention, Convention for the Protection of the Architectural Heritage, HEREIN, the European Foundation for Skill Heritage) consider patrimonies as factors of sustainable development.
Cultural cooperation agreements with the Baltic States, Belarus and Poland are being prepared, giving Russian art more space and opportunities for becoming more useful to the peoples of the neighbouring countries. The authors of the Kaliningrad -2010 project (PROMETEE II Programme) propose a TACIS project, which supported the setting up of a European I. Kant Centre of the Humanities. This initiative aims at presenting and developing the potential of Kant's heritage. This project presupposes participation of many countries including Germany. I. Kant belongs to the common European heritage. Another reason is to attach a more cultural and humanistic character to the activities sponsored by the TACIS programme, not only through the connection with the business community of the materialistic Western Europe. It might become a contribution to a new cultural specificity of Kaliningrad, an essential condition for a successful policy of steady development and, last but not least, the Kant Centre could serve as a basis for the further development of cultural and historical tourism. It could become a permanent research agency collecting documents on the history of European ideas and social institutions. Summer universities, exhibitions, seminars and conferences could be organized.
This policy would greatly help Russia and Europe to develop and strengthen their good relations, without upholding any supremacy and showing a strong desire to share knowledge and maintain a dialogue on cultures and traditions. The new technologies develop a cultural and multi-language communication, but they need a new frame to build up a future international society. The young people are certainly the best ambassadors of this new society.
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ROSSIYSKIY EKSKLAV:
PREODOLENIE KONFLIKTOGENNOSTY*
Summary
The global economy is becoming more and more regionalized. Regionalization has considerable potential for conflict since it is caused by disagreement between the Centre and the regions. Active regionalization sometimes expresses itself in separatism. Thus, regionalization may cause a certain amount of apprehension at the general state level of administration (as evidenced by the current efforts to strengthen the “power vertical”). However, it is impossible to effectively administer the area without a sufficient degree of regionalization. Thus, the key issue is then the issue of the distribution of functions and powers among different territorial levels of administration.
An enclave (exclave) is a specific type of region. From the point of view of the administration, the key issue is the fact that in an enclave it is difficult to separate internal and external policies, since many internal issues here affect the relationships with third party countries.
The exclave status affects the culture and identity of the local population. They, in their turn, are to a large extent determined by its ethnodemographic characteristics and peculiarities of its formation. Thus, the population of the Kaliningrad region as a specific “region of migratory socialism” was characterized by organized migration, primarily from other Russian regions (and to a lesser extent from Belarus and Ukraine). Considerable changes in the socio-cultural climate of the exclave were brought about by migrants in the 1990s, who came from other republics of the former
* Klemeshev Andrey P. Rossiyskiy eksklav: preodolenie konfliktogennosty. St.-Petesrburg, 2005
Rossiyskiy eksklav: preodolenie konfliktogennosty
USSR (primarily from Kazakhstan). This migration greatly distorted the appearance of the Kaliningrad socium, and exacerbated its economic, cultural and psychological disunity.
The remoteness of the exclave from the “motherland” and the local peculiarities could lead in the course of time to the development of its own specific identity. This, in its turn, could under certain circumstances lead to disagreement with the centre and even to the development of separatist attitudes. On the other hand, selfperception of the population of the exclave as a territorial community, its perception of the region as a “little homeland” could become an additional factor in the acceleration of the socioeconomic development of the exclave area.
When considering the use of foreign experience as applied to the Kaliningrad exclave, we should not proceed from the assumption that it can be categorized as a particular type of exclave (enclave) territory on the basis of formal characteristics. We are not interested in a direct copy, which is impossible in any case, because uniquely Russian traits, specific conditions, economic and political expediency and even necessity are the determining factors. For that reason some useful information is to be had not only from the experience of land exclaves (e.g. Alaska), but also from remote island areas (e.g. the Faroe Islands or the Åland Islands).
The involvement of exclaves in global processes leads, for geographical reasons, to the reorientation of their ties (primarily economic ones) towards those areas within which they are situated, while the exclave’s links with the “mother” states are weakened. In the case of the Kaliningrad region the European Union and the Baltic Sea basin are the areas concerned.
Exclaves have two ways of developing in the globalizing world, i.e. (self-imposed) isolation or integration, i.e. getting involved in global processes. Isolation is a dead-end approach that can only aggravate the severity of the exclave position. However, integration does not imply the exclave’s “dissolution” within a certain global community. It should involve the establishment of a new balance of interests between the “mother” states, the exclave region itself, the states concerned and the new global actors (TNCs, intergovernmental and non-state organizations, etc.).
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Exclavity under globalization
There are not many regions in the world that receive as much attention as the Kaliningrad region. The exclave Russian region in the centre of Europe is a certain indicator of relations between Russia and the West. Either hopes are pinned on it as a “pilot” region of cooperation, or its seeming depressiveness and potential for conflict are emphasized.
Indeed, this small region, with a total area of 15,000 square kilometres and a population of less than 1 million, can play an important role in developing international cooperation due to its geopolitical position. But its spatial isolation from mainland Russia causes numerous political, economic, social and ecological problems.
The Kaliningrad region became an exclave of the USSR on September 6, 1991, and after the demise of the USSR the region became an exclave of the Russian Federation. It is the same type of exclave as the Azerbaijan autonomous republic of Nakhichevan, the Cabinda province in Angola, and the American state Alaska.
The main difference between the Kaliningrad region and other enclaves (exclaves) is its geopolitical position. The Russian region became an enclave within the enlarged European Union on May 1, 2004. In this sense the situation in which the Russian exclave in the Baltic Sea region found itself is unique. Of course, there are isolated enclave and semi-enclave states within the EU – Andorra, San Marino, the Vatican and Monaco. Switzerland, surrounded by this integrated group, is not a part of the EU either. But these are all independent states that forge relationships with the EU. In contrast the Kaliningrad region is an entity of a federative state, which from the beginning predetermined the nature of the problems facing the region, and also the different mechanism of their resolution.
In 2004 the Kaliningrad region also became an enclave within NATO. That is, the socioeconomic issues are supplemented by military and political ones as well, and issues of security increase the region’s proneness to conflict. Now a lot more depends on how the declared partnership between Russia and NATO will develop, and what position in it will be given to the Kaliningrad region as the main base of the Russian Baltic fleet.
The region’s becoming an enclave within the EU and NATO has made the situation so acute that it can be considered a certain
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