Философия. Учебное пособие (практикум) на английском языке

Philosophy ●

As part of preparation for the second question, students should understand that the interest in the nature of conscious experience has nodoubtbeenaroundforaslongastherehavebeenreflectivehumans.

It would be impossible here to survey the entire history, but a few highlights are in order.

In the history of Western philosophy, which is the focus of this entry, important writings on human nature and the soul and mind go back to ancient philosophers, such as Plato. More sophisticated work on the nature of consciousness and perception can be found in the work of Plato’s most famous student Aristotle, and then throughout the later Medieval period.

It is, however, with the work of Descartes, and his successors in the early modern period of philosophy that consciousness and the relationship between the mind and body took center stage. As we shall see, Descartes argued that the mind is a non-physical substance distinct from the body. He also did not believe in the existence of unconscious mental states, a view certainly not widely held today. Descartes defined “thinking” very broadly to include virtually every kind of mental state and urged that consciousness is essential to thought. Our mental states are, according to Descartes, infallibly transparent to introspection.

J. Locke held a similar position regarding the connection between mentality and consciousness, but was far less committed on the exact metaphysical nature of the mind.

Perhaps the most important philosopher of the period explicitly to endorse the existence of unconscious mental states was Leibniz.

Although Leibniz also believed in the immaterial nature of mental substances (which he called “monads”), he recognized the existence of what he called “petit perceptions,” which are basically unconscious perceptions. He also importantly distinguished between perception and apperception, roughly the difference between outer-directed consciousness and self-consciousness.

The most important detailed theory of mind in the early modern period was developed by I. Kant. His main work Critique of Pure Reason is as equally dense as it is important, and cannot easily be summarized in this context. Although he owes a great debt to his immediate predecessors, Kant is arguably the most important philosopher since

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Plato and Aristotle and is highly relevant today. Kant basically thought that an adequate account of phenomenal consciousness involved far more than any of his predecessors had considered. There are important mental structures which are “presupposed” in conscious experience, and Kant presented an elaborate theory as to what those structures are, which,inturn,hadotherimportantimplications.He,likeLeibniz,also saw the need to postulate the existence of unconscious mental states and mechanisms in order to provide an adequate theory of mind.

Non-classical interpretation of consciousness is represented by the following theories. Freudianism (Z. Freud), based on the fact that con- sciousnessisinfluencedbyunconsciousexperiencesthatarecausedby psychological and biological needs. The neofreudianism (Jung) offered to abandon attempts to define consciousness, believing that scientific means of consciousness it is impossible to comprehend. Phenomenology (E. Husserl) considers consciousness and subjectivity as a specif- ic kind of being, as something inseparable from the immediate reality of life. Existentialist tradition sees the origins of consciousness in the world of human communication. In psychology, with the notable exception of the virtual banishment of consciousness by behaviorist psychologists, there were also those deeply interested in consciousness and various introspective (or “first-person”) methods of investigating the mind.

It must be kept in mind that the problem of consciousness is a very complicated problem and in the history of philosophy there is no a single solution.

As part of preparation for the third question it is important to understand that the concept of consciousness is not an unambiguous one. In the broad sense of the word, consciousness signifies psychical reflection of reality regardless of the level at which it is realized –bio- logical or social, sensuous or rational.

In a more narrow and special sense, consciousness is taken to mean not just a psychical state but the highest, properly human form of psychical reflection of reality. Consciousness is structurally organ- ized, being an integral system consisting of various elements linked by law-governed relations.

Such elements as the realization of things and the emotional experiencing, i.e. a definite attitude to the content of that which is reflected,

Philosophy ●

stand out most clearly in the structure of consciousness. The development of consciousness assumes above all enrichment of it through addition of new knowledge about the surrounding world and about man himself. Knowledge, realization of things, has different levels, depth of penetration into the object, and degree of clarity of understanding. Hence the differences between scientific, philosophical, aesthetic and religious conceptions of the world, and also between the sensuous and rational levels of consciousness. Sensations, perceptions, representations, concepts, thought form the core of consciousness, but they do not exhaust its full structure: the latter also includes the act of attention as a necessary component. It is precisely due to concentration of atten- tion that a definite range of objects is brought within the compass of consciousness.

The objects and events acting on us produce not only cognitive images, thoughts and ideas but also emotional storms which make us tremble, feel excited or fearful, cry, admire, love or hate. Cognition and creativity is a fervent search for the truth, rather than a coldly intellectual one. The rich sphere of emotional life comprises feelings proper, which are the attitude to external influences (pleasure, joy, grief, etc.), moods, or emotional states (cheerful, depressed, etc.), and affects (fury, horror, desperation, etc.).

Depending on a particular attitude to the object of cognition, knowledge acquires a varying degree of significance for the individual, which is most strikingly expressed in convictions: the latter are permeated by profound and stable emotions. And this is an indication of the particular value of knowledge that becomes a vital reference frame.

Emotions are elements of the structure of consciousness. The process of cognition involves all aspects of our inner world –needs, interests, feelings, and will. Man’s true knowledge of the world contains both imag- inal reflections and feelings.

Consciousness is not restricted to cognitive processes, to directed- ness at an object (referred to as attention), and the emotional sphere.

Our intentions are realized through an effort of will. But consciousness is not a sum total of its constituent elements: it is an integral, complex structured whole.

In the fourth question which is devoted to the analysis of the problems of self-consciousness and reflexion students should under-

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stand that in everyday practice a man thinks and knows himself, he realizes what he does, thinks, and feels. Both historically and in the course of his individual perfection man is first aware of objects and his own practical actions, and at a higher level of development, of his thoughts about objects and actions. He realizes himself as a personal- ity. Self-consciousness presupposes the singling out and differentiation of man, of his own self from everything that surrounds him.

Self-consciousness is the realization by man of his actions, emotions, thoughts, motives of behavior, interests, and position in society.

An essential role in the formation of self-consciousness is played by the sensations of man’s own body, of his movements and actions. Man can only become himself in interaction with other people, with the world, through his practical activity and communication.

The formation of self-consciousness is socially conditioned not only through direct communication between people and their reciprocal evaluations but also through the formulation of society’s imperatives imposed on the individual, through his realization of the rules for mutual relations.

Self-consciousness is closely linked with such a spiritual phenomenon as reflexion (these concepts are sometimes used as synonyms).

Reflexion is a principle of human consciousness which guides man towards a conscious realization of his own spiritual and intellectual processes, towards a frequently critical analysis of his spiritual and psychical states with due attention to all the contradictions in the ori- entation of the emotions, impulses and thoughts; reflexion is contem- plation of the devices used in thought processes and of their social significance. The levels of reflexion may vary widely from elementary self-awareness to profound meditation on the meaning of man’s being and its moral content. In cognizing himself, man never remains the way he was before. Self-consciousness did not arise as a kind of spiritual mirror for idle self-admiration. It appeared in response to the call of the social conditions of life which demanded of each individual from the very beginning that he evaluate his deeds, words and thoughts in the light of definite social norms. Life’s harsh lessons have taught man self-control and selfregulation. Regulating his actions and anticipating their results, the self-conscious man assumes full responsibility for them.

Philosophy ●

The conscious and the unconscious. The colorful fabric of psychical processes and their manifestations in the form of human actions and relations is woven out of various threads ranging from the highest degrees of the clarity of consciousness to the depths of the unconscious, which figures so prominently in man’s mental life. For instance, we do not realize all the consequences of our actions – very far from it. Not all the external impressions reach the focus of consciousness. Many actions are automatic or habitual. But, despite the great significance and place of the unconscious forms of the psyche, man is above all a conscious being.

Consciousness forms a complex relationship with various kinds of unconscious and irrational mental phenomena. They have a structure of their own, whose elements are connected both with one another and with consciousness and actions which influence them and in their turn experience their influence on themselves. We sense everything that acts on us, but it is by no means all sensations that reach our consciousness. A great many of them remain on the periphery of consciousness or even beyond its limits.

Two types of unconscious actions should be distinguished. The first comprizes actions that were never realized, the second, those that were previously realized. Thus many of our actions, controlled by consciousness in the process of formation, become automatic and then performed unconsciously. Man’s conscious activity itself is only possible on condition that a maximal number of the elements of that activity is performed automatically.

However, not all the unconscious elements, as we have already said, were previously conscious and then became automatic: a certain portion of the unconscious never reaches the illumined area of consciousness. It is these psychical phenomena, uncontrolled by consciousness, that expand the whole field of the psyche beyond consciousness as such.

Human activity is only conscious in relation to those results which originally exist in the design and the intention as their goals. But it is by far not all the consequences of actions that are adequate realizations of the objective. The results of our actions and deeds are often entirely different and even contrary to what we aspired for in performing these actions.

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In the fifth question it must be kept in mind that language is as old as a consciousness. The facial expressions, gestures, and sounds used as instruments of communication, in the first place among the higher animals, served as the biological prerequisite for the formation of human speech. The development of labor of necessity promoted close cohesion among the members of society, increasing the incidence of mutual supportandjointactivity.Humanbeingsnowhadsomethingtosayto one another. This need created an organ – the appropriate structure of the brain and of the peripheral speech apparatus. The physiological mechanism of speech-formation is in the nature of a conditioned reflex: sounds pronounced in a given situation and accompanied by gestures were associated in the brain with the appropriate objects and actions, and then with the ideal phenomena of consciousness.

Originally an expression of emotions, language developed into an instrumentfordesignatingimagesofobjects,theirpropertiesandrela- tions. Language ensured uniform formation of ideal phenomena in all the individuals engaged in communication, which was a pressing need of joint production activity.

Language as a means of communication. The essence of language is manifested in its dual function: it serves as a means of communication and as an instrument of thought. Speech is activity, the very process of communication, of exchange of thoughts, feelings, wishes, goal-set- tings, a process which is realized through language, i.e. a definite sys- temofcommunicativemeans.Languageisasystemofcontent-related, meaningful forms.

Through language, the thoughts and emotions of individuals cease to be their personal property, becoming public property, the whole society’s spiritual wealth. Thanks to language, an individual perceives the world notjustthroughhisownsenseorgans,andthinksnotjustwithhisown brain, but with the sense organs and brains of all the people to whose experiences he gained access through language. Storing the spiritual values of society, being a material form of the condensation and storage of the ideal moments of human consciousness, language acts as a mechanism of social heredity.

Language as an instrument of thought. The unity of language and consciousness. Consciousness and language form a unity; in their ex-

Philosophy ●

istence, they are inseparably connected as an inherently and logically formed ideal content which presupposes an external material form.

Languageistheimmediaterealityofthoughtandconsciousnessingen- eral. It takes part in mental activity as its sensuous basis or instrument.

Language is instrumental in the transition from perceptions and representations to concepts, and in operating with concepts. In speech, man records his thoughts and emotions, and can thus subject them to analysisasanidealobjectlyingoutsidehim.Inexpressinghisthoughts and emotions, man understands them clearer himself. He understands himself only by testing the comprehensibility of his words in communication with others.

Language and consciousness form a unity. The determinant side in this unity is consciousness: being a reflection of reality, it moulds the forms and dictates the laws of its linguistic being. Through consciousness andpractice,thestructureoflanguagereflects,inthefinalanalysis,the structure of being, albeit in modified form. But unity is not identity.

The two aspects of this unity differ from each other: consciousness reflects reality, while language designates it and expresses it in thought.

Language and consciousness form a contradictory unity. Language influences consciousness: its historically evolved norms, distinctly dif- ferent in each nation, stress different features in identical objects. Lan- guagealsoinfluencesconsciousnessinthesensethatitexercisesakind of coercion, “tyranny” over thought, directing its movement along the channels of linguistic forms, driving, as it were, the variable, individually unique and emotionally colored thoughts into the common framework of these forms.

In this question it is important to pay attention on the problem of the artificial intelligence which is considered as is a metaphorical concept to denote a system of human-created tools that reproduce certain functions of human thinking. The priority area of artificial intelligence is computer expert systems. Studying the problem of artificial intelligence, special disciplines are initially focused on a comprehensive understanding of this problem, are called upon to develop rules for the design of such algorithms of computer technology, which would have the character of a reasonable, purposeful activity. If the thinking of animals, their “language” remain at the level of elementary thinking (an-

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imals have memory, they are peculiar rudiments of analysis, synthesis and other mental operations with respect to subject images, but not concepts), and human consciousness is associated with abstract conceptual thinking, the artificial intelligence of the “thinking” machine operates not images, but signs. Here may be the process of “samonte” (self-learning, comprogramming computers). However, this “teaching” of a special kind. Thus, a computer programmed only to prove mathematical theorems will not be able to play chess or solve other problems. The illusion of “reasonableness“ is achieved not only by speed, but also by a successful combination of consistently and in parallel working processors performing formalized procedures. But computer cannot replace a person completely. And, first of all, because he works on the program laid down by man, and therefore is in his power.

It should be kept in mind that the problem of artificial intelligence has a long history. Previously, when creating computing devices, as a rule, went by copying, imitating the subject actions of a person or his thinking.

In nowadays the works devoted to artificial intelligence, are divided in to there are three main areas:

•reproduction of human creativity;

•application of dialogue forms of “ communication “of a person with computer systems (for example, for the purpose of translation of formalized texts into natural languages);

•creation of robotics, the most important element of which is ”artificial intelligence”.

Thus, the person with his consciousness and the computer go towards each other. Technique increasingly acts as a partner of a person in his life. Natural intelligence, coupled with “artificial” enhances the creative possibilities of man, puts it in front of the need for a new paradigm of thinking that can ensure their unity and integrity in the interests of preserving and further development of mankind.

Summing up the consideration of the problem of consciousness, it should be noted that consciousness is an open system in which there are not only the sphere of rational (exact concepts, theoretical knowledge), but also sensual-empirical, emotional-volitional means of re- flecting the world. All of them, taken together, open up new possibili- ties of man as a creative and self-evident being.

Philosophy ●

This lesson is supposed to be held in the form of a debate on the topic: “The problems of artificial intelligence in the modern world”.

This type of practical training involves a collective discussion of the problem of artificial intelligence in order to identify relevant aspects and address the most controversial issues. The purpose of the lesson in the form of a dispute is the formation of students’ assessment judgments andapprovalof worldview positions. Thisform ofwork in- volves high mental activity, the ability to conduct polemics, discuss the problem, defend their views and beliefs, succinctly and clearly express thoughts. The main functions of the debate are cognitive, educational, the function of control over the content, depth and systematic selfstudy of students, as well as organizational and orientation and systematizing functions.

This form of training involves the integration of intellectual efforts of students to achieve a common goal. Within the framework of the lecture material, students are given the characteristic of consciousness, its two-level nature is revealed, the role of “collective representations” in the development of consciousness is considered, the language as a sign system is defined, the essence of artificial intelligence is revealed. In order to get a complete picture of the philosophical problems of artificial intelligence and its connection with consciousness, it is necessary to study the relevant literature. A supplement to the successful conduct of the dispute is the assimilation of issues related to artificial intelligence and peculiarities of its formation in Russian society.

The participants of the debate are divided into two subgroups, each of which will be discussed with the other. In preparing for the debate, students need to consider the following issues, after which they prepare two messages and arguments.

Themes

1. Modern science and artificial intelligence

Issues that need to be resolved in the context of the specified message:

1.1.Creation and development of artificial intelligence.

1.2.Linguistic support of artificial intelligence.

1.3.History and trends of artificial intelligence.

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1.4.Philosophical problems of artificial intelligence and artificial

life.

1.5.Consciousness and artificial intelligence.

2. The development of artificial intelligence in the XXI century.

Issues that need to be resolved in the context of the specified message:

2.1.Artificial intelligence and security problems.

2.2.Artificial intelligence as a human challenge.

2.3.Artificial intelligence as a scientific field.

2.4.The problem of determining the tasks of artificial intelligence in the XXI century.

2.5.Predictable and unexpected consequences of the use of artificial intelligence.

Requirements for the preparation of the seminar-debate

In order to pass the practice on the necessary methodological and intellectual level the participants of the debate should:

1)get acquainted with the characteristics of the recommended literature;

2)consider different points of view on the formation of the ques-

tion;

3)to highlight the problem areas;

4)to formulate their own point of view ;

5)to formulate a debatable questions.

During the debate, students perform the following functions:

The speaker briefly presents the essence of the protected point of view.

The co-reporter argues, justifies, the position of the speaker.

The opponent expresses his own point of view on the issue under consideration and cites counterexamples and counterarguments.

The expert is responsible for comparative analysis of arguments and counterarguments, determines their reliability.

“Provocateur” sets “controversial” issues, leads to unexpected examples, activates a general discussion.