Vocabulary

to cite	contribution	to extend	to confine
to make explicit	to fill gap	to strengthen	specific
to fit in	to add support	argument	to quote
integral	to include	to incorporate	to express

Paraphrasing

ObjectivesIn this unit you will:	learn what paraphrasing is;
	know the rules of paraphrasing;
	discover how to change the structure of the text.

Starting up

Ex. 1. Read and analyze the extract.

Paraphrasing and summarizing is used to acknowledge another author's ideas. You can extract and summarize important points, while at the same time making it clear from whom and where you have got the ideas you are discussing and what your point of view is. Compare, for example:

Brown (1983, p. 231) claims that a far more effective approach is...

Brown (1983, p. 231) points out that a far more effective approach is...

A far more effective approach is ... (Brown, 1983, p. 231)

The first one is Brown's point of view with no indication about your point of view. The second one is Brown's point of view, which you agree with, and the third is your point of view, which is supported by Brown.

Introduction

Paraphrasing is writing the ideas of another person in your own words. You need to change the words and the structure but keep the meaning the same. Please remember, though, that even when you paraphrase someone's work, you must acknowledge it.

Example:

Source:It has long been known that Cairo is the most populous city on earth, but no-one knew exactly how populous it was until last month.

Paraphrase: Although Cairo has been the world's most heavily populated city for many years, the precise population was not known until four weeks ago.

The following stages may be useful:

1. Read and understand the text.

2. Make a list of the main ideas.

   1. Find the important ideas – the important words/phrases. In some way mark them – write them down, underline or highlight them.

   2. Find alternative words/synonyms for these words/phrases – do not change specialized vocabulary and common words.

Example. Memory is the capacity for storing and retrieving information. Memory is the facility for keeping and recovering data.

3. Change the structure of the text.

   1. Identify the meaning relationships between the words/ideas – e.g. cause/effect, generalization, contrast.

   2. Express these relationships in a different way.

Example. Besides being a theory about the basis and origin of knowledge and the contents of our minds in general, empiricism is also sometimes a methodology. Not only is empiricism a theory about the basis and origin of knowledge and the contents of our minds in general, it also sometimes a methodology.

c. Change the grammar of the text: change nouns to verbs, adjectives to adverbs, etc.

Example. This rewriting of history was not so much a matter of a new start.

This rewriting of history was not so much a matter of starting again.

• change verbs to nouns.

Example. The Normans invaded in 1066. The Norman invasion took place in 1066.

• change active verbs to passive.

Example. We can relate a study of this kind to texts in other media too. A study of this kind can be related to texts in other media too.

• break up sentences.

Example. In 1851 the average family size was 4.7, roughly the same as it had been in the seventeenth century, but the 1 million couples who married during the 1860s, which the historian G. M. Young described as the best decade in English history to have been brought up in, raised the figure to 6.2.

In 1851 the average family size was 4.7, roughly the same as it had been in the seventeenth century. However, the 1 million couples who married during the 1860s, which the historian G. M. Young described as the best decade in English history to have been brought up in, raised the figure to 6.2.

• combine sentences.

Example. Tropical forests are defined here as evergreen or partly evergreen forests. They grow in areas receiving not less than 100 mm of precipitation in any month for two out of three years. The mean annual temperature is 24-plus degrees Celsius. The area is essentially frost-free. Tropical forests are defined here as evergreen or partly evergreen forests, in areas receiving not less than 100 mm of precipitation in any month for two out of three years, with mean annual temperature of 24-plus degrees Celsius, and essentially frost-free.

4. Rewrite the main ideas in complete sentences. Combine your notes into a piece of continuous writing.

5. Check your work.

   1. Make sure the meaning is the same.

   2. Make sure the length is the same.

   3. Make sure the style is your own.

   4. Remember to acknowledge other people's work.

This is not enough by itself. You also need to change the words and the structure of the text!

Ex. 2. Read the sentences and paraphrase them in your own words.

1. There are a number of methods of joining metal articles together, depending on the type of metal and the strength of the joint which is required.

2. In general, the population was spread irregularly with large numbers in the east and fewer people in the north. There were still, however, even in densely populated areas like Warwickshire, areas of forest with few people.

3. Mankind is always searching for a better life. One way of improving it is to plan work so that it corresponds to the capacities and needs of the worker. Ergonomics is concerned with fitting work to man. It doesn't limit its goal to the elimination of physical hazards to health, but aims at making the work more satisfying to the worker.

4. In most developing countries, two-thirds or more of the people live in rural areas, with few, if any, of the services the city-dweller takes for granted. Water taps in houses, for example, are almost unknown. At best, there may be a village well. Often the only source of water is a lake or a stream, perhaps several kilometers away. The drudgery of water-carrying can take up the better part of every day.

5. The way I see it, people need to be made far more aware of safety in ordinary everyday situations – a classic example, of course, is the child reaching for the bottle of tablets Mum forgot to lock away – and it seems to me that the cinema would be the ideal place in which to get the message across. A film about safety tucked at the end of the forthcoming attractions and advertisements would then be seen by a large section of the population.

(http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm)

Listening

Script 18

Ex. 3. Listen to two students, Peter and Alice, discussing the article «Rules for Effective Paraphrasing» and make a note of anything which you find particularly interesting or surprising, or that you didn't know before.