Adolescents

Though language education is supposed to begin in the 1^st or the 2^nd form, some school fing it impossible to offer language teaching services on such a scale. Another reason is that adolescents learn English as their second language and this can happen at any period in the second school.

• At the opening stage (learners for whom learning is the chief activity and to whom the goals and the results of their efforts should be explained explicitly, in terms of what they know and what they can do by now

• there is no need for the written skills to leg behind and all the 4 major skills can be developed hand in hand

• the chief principle is much in little – limited language material, because the foundation of basic skills should be very reliable, but this limited language should serve maximum communicative means (let me do smth – offer of service, asking for permission, indirect request on smb’s behalf and indirect command)

• follow the idea (Vygotskiy) proximal development and attach a lot of importance to developing the students’ intellect and background knowledge

• make your studies as global as possible. The global potential involves at least 3 levels of global awareness (1 – that of knowledge acquisition and attitude formation, related to global issues, 2 – development of “cognitive universals” : analogy, classification, generalization, etc., 3 – the inner global potential of language as an academic discipline, that is some elements of a linguistic picture of the world)

1 – can teach to use the map of the world, establish connections between countries and the language spoken, the writers and their native countries, cultural artifacts, find relatives for each English names (Paul – Павел – Пауль), match the author and his book,

developing intellect – doing analogies, analysis + synthesis; drawing conclusions (Is he … ? – Yes he is. He has no time. Listen to the speaker and decide whether they agree with each other)

Decision making. hen developing intellectual operations we also shape a number of functional skills – reading and listening from the very 1^st days emerge as communicative activity.

Use rhymes. Should serve the purposes of speaking, so that their own utterances may be based on the rhyme. (It’s late. I can’t wait. Ask Ben. To phone me at ten. Ask Kate to visit me at eight.)

Higher education = Tertiary = university

primary, elementary - Am / middle / high

Advanced placement classes

(on an optional bases) (10^th and 11^th forms)

A general advanced course + a professional focused advanced course (philology, economics,)

Modules: relatively complete blocks – they require assessment at the end

Rating is based on credits received (for attendance and test results)

Each major skill is assessed. Parameters (e.g. for speaking)

• ability to interact

• appropriateness and logical adequacy

• tolerable degree of accuracy

• lexical and syntactical repertoire

• phonetic adequacy

• tolerable fluency (tempo, minimal hesitation pauses)

Hours – 2 per week – elementary

middle and high school – 3 per week

Textbook analysis

It was not very vital 20 years ago. The syllabus was prescribed rigidly.

We can use of a number of foreign text books, but they are not good as the main text books, because no foreign author can foresee the specific difficulties that depend on the mentality of the Russian speaker.

Criteria:

• does a textbook correspond to the age of the learners? (content)

• does it conform to the syllabus in terms of the time (how many hours per week)

• does it observe the principles of graded difficulties

• if a text book begins with practically all English sounds packed in a one unit, etc., but is good in many other respects, it’s good to use it after a brief introductory course

• is the cognitive approach in many ways observed

• how does the scope of language matter introduced per lesson suit the students’ memory capacity (10 words per lesson, but also revision classes)

• how often do the vocabulary units re-appear in the lessons to come

• thematically, is the structure of the book chiefly linear or concentric (cumulative)

• are language units selected with regard to maximum freedom of expression (do theey enable learners perform maximum speech factors with minimum grammar)

• does the textbook envisage revision lessons, how often?

• are the texts suited to the needs and interests of the learners, are the genres varied enough (advise column, cooking recipies)

• does the textbook encourage self-propelled learning, that is does it allow any student autonomy any suggestions how to write on one’s own, how to access your own progress, does it systematize grammar rules)

• are there enough pictures or other visual materials, do they have any educational value

• are the major skills representive, are they interrelated and mutually supportive

• are the language drills communicatively charged, is the communication simulating

• to what extent does the textbook ensure the understanding of the target culture and intercultural communication

• how authentic is the language and content of the textbook (lexical, idiomatic, grammatical, functional authenticity, culture-bound, content)

• does it have a teacher book (saves time, gives advice)

• are their additional resources (audio tapes, video materials, a complimentary reader, a textbook)

The History of Methodology

History of language teaching has 3 periods:

1. 17, 18, & the greater part of the 19^th century

2. end of the 19^th – the first 3 decades of the 20^th

3. development of contemporary methods

During the 1 period the 2 main methods were grammar translation method & text-based translation method. In those days Latin was the dominant foreign language. It was the L of international legal & scholarly communication. The main aspects were: grammar, vocabulary. Major skill: translation. Grammar translation method consisted in presenting grammar rules much consciously, though not functionally. Vocabulary was supplied just to illustrate the usage of grammar patterns. Texts for reading did not have any educational value. They were supposed to be imitated doing back translation. They were intentionally disconnected in order not to distract the learners from grammar. The text based translation method on the contrary did not focus on grammar & offered no explicit release. Neither grammar nor vocabulary was specially selected & graded. The only thig carefully selected were texts for reading, but we not adapted & simply to the view of their educational value.

A kind of revolution was in the 2^nd period. The science of phonetic appeared. The goal became pragmatic. The chief aspect – phonetics. Imitation & memorization.

Neo-direct methods

Harold Palmer – “The Scientific Study & Teaching of Languages”. “This Language Learning Business”

Michael West – “teaching English in difficult circumstances” “Learning to read a foreign language”

Palmer worked in Japan, in elite schools, many of his learners later went to English Universities. He had ample time for teaching English. He taught all the major skill focusing on speaking, listening.

West worked in India in ordinary schools. A class there would have 40-50 pupils. With practically no equipment, textbooks were in short supply, students often dropped out of school as soon as they achieve adolescence. Most teachers were native teachers, that is Hindi. There command of English was very far to be desired. He taught to very large audiences which can be retained or revived so to say. The only skill which did not require the fluency of the teacher as the sample was reading. He started devoting readers. He started with primer (букварь), then books called readers (хрестоматии).he took into consideration the interests of each age group. For 7 year olds he focused on fairy tales. For adolescences he gave adventure stories. He did not use the native language of the learners, instead of it he used direct demonstrations. He gave a lot of attach to the sense of achievement. Nearly lesson is concluded “now you know … (number) words”. He was the 1^st to introduce the ides of before-questions & after-questions. He introduced such terms as searching reading, skipping reading & observational reading. He was the 1^st who insisted on “read, look up & say” technique. He was the 1^st to introduce the substitution tables, though much more was done by Palmer. He also insisted that teachers should not talk too much in the classroom & gave the learners a chance of ample practice.

Palmer was the 1^st to suggest certain principles of vocabulary & grammar selection. He introduced the idea of graded difficulties. Snowball was his idea. He believed in minimizing the language material during the early stages to achieve maximum perfection. Hi minimized the language material. He offered texts based on super primitive vocabulary.

	Palmer	West
Goals	Practical – mainly, oral speech	Practical – mainly, reading
Aspect	Phonetics – grammar – vocabulary	Vocabulary – grammar
Major skills & their order	Listening – speaking – reading – writing	Reading – writing – listening – speaking
Approach	Mainly, intuitive (from analysis to synthesis)	Mainly intuitive (from synthesis to analysis)
Selection of language units	Imitation, memorization, substitution tables, patterns for oral substitution	“read, look up & say”, before & after questions, addressed speech

Contemporary Methods

Suggestopedia – a teaching method developed by the Bulgarian psychotherapist Georgi Lozanov. It learning can occur several times as quickly as it occurs in traditional teaching. Learners were able to memorize several hundred words per lesson. This method is subconscious.

Theoretical principles:

1. releasing subconscious channels for super-memorization;

2. creating a learner-friendly relaxed atmosphere to add a psycho-therapeutic effect to learning;

Basis strategies:

1. infantilization – encouraging adult learners to relax & play their parts as children do;

2. music as background contributing to relaxation;

3. no performance, however wrong linguistically, is ever censured; students are encouraged (praised) & offered the correct version;

4. adult learners are given “legends”, so as to cast away their real self, while in class;

5. “intoning” («интонационные качели»);

Four phases of a language lass:

1. Introduction. the teacher teaches the material in a “playful manner” instead of analyzing lexis & grammar of the text in a directive manner;

2. Concert session (active & passive). In the active session the teacher reads with intoning as selected music is played. Occasionally, the students read the text together with the teacher & listen only to the music as the teacher pauses in particular patterns. The passive session is done mare calmly

3. Elaboration. The students sing classical songs & play games while the teacher acts more like a consultant.

4. Production. The students spontaneously speak & interact in the target without interruption or correction.

Content-Based Education (контекстный метод)

It is treated for non-linguistic students of English. Students should receive new professionally oriented information through English. This education can be applied both to schools & to language universities. It overlaps the ideas of global education. It can be practically totally absorbed by the cognitive communicative method.

Postulate:

1. focus on issues that they would find worth discussing in their mother tongue, too; make personal decisions;

2. manifest or acquire awareness of various spheres of human experience, where the linguistic & functional skills in the target language become a means to an end, a vehicle for exchange of information;

3. are taught to perceive the world holistically, to see cause0effect relationships, predict consequences, regard the same phenomenon in divers perspectives;

4. are exposed to АД culture as compared with that of the native tongue in the wider context of world culture;

5. are encouraged to look for information both in the native & foreign languages, so as to share in the classroom;

6. Are taught to perceive language as content, too, rather that an empty vessel, i.e., to develop a vision of the world in a linguistic perspective.

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Крючков

Audiovisuals and technical devices

chalkboard, transparencies, flipcharts, poster paper, maps, diagrams, schemes, graphs, cards, pictures, slides, photos, artifacts, videos, DVDs, films, CDRoms, audiotapes, audio-Cds, computers, computer software, power point presentations, camcorders, direct demonstrations

Effectiveness

Dependence Factors:

1. on the stage of the language learning

2. on the type of the students taught

3. on the type of the lesson and taught language skills

4. on planned aims and goals

5. on the time available

6. on how the teacher approaches teaching and learning (principles)

Problem areas

1. time to prepare and use

2. teacher control

3. classroom interaction

4. quick access availability

5. suitability

6. teacher as a competent user

7. storage for later use

Why should they be used:

1. to maintain a high level of interest

2. promote greater student participation

3. motivate peer participation and interaction

4. generate learning activity in both parts of the brain

5. get students to process information in a more structured way

6. change the format of the learner’s productive activity

7. facilitate problem learning methods and heuristic learning

8. create new conditions for building knowledge, skills and abilities

9. utilize non-linguistic and extra-linguistic means of thought expression

10. understand students’ learning needs, preferences, abilities

11. promote collaborative learning by asking students to create and fulfill group projects

• to get students to use the language for real purposes

• to ensure listening and speaking skills

• to encourage selective reading and writing

• to illustrate and discuss cultural information

• to support communication and socializing activities in the EFL classroom

• to diversify communicative tasks and activities

• to model communication in different ways

• to illustrate major points in grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation

• to create new conditions for learning to speak, read and write

• to test results

• to practice editing skills