Biology_of_Turtles

356

cloaca, 234 ovaries, 231 testes, 227

Anatomy

anatomical characters, 97 brain, 303

chelonians, 226 shell, 2

Anatomy of Sea Turtles (Wyneken), 115 Ancillary bladders (cloacal bursae), 235, 236 Andersson, K.E., 236

Andrews, H.V., 280

Andrews, R.D., 257 Andrews, R.M., 23, 36–38

Animal Physiology (Schmidt-Nielsen), 151 Ankylosis, 63–65

Anoxia brain, 310

energy savings, 315 GABA receptors, 320 hippocampal receptors, 317 hyperglycemia, 309 hypometabolic state, 315 tolerance, 304, 309

Anoxic survival or recovery, 305, 310, 331 Anoxic water, 259

Antioxidants, 325–329 Antwerp Zoo, 165 Aorta, 214

Aortae, 219

Apalone

cervical vertebrae, 166–167 locomotion, 122

neck and muscle variations, 175 pleurals, 78

predators, 165

Apalone ferox, 78, 81, 165, 179–180 Apalone spinifera, 123, 126, 140, 142, 165 Apoptosis, 30–32, 306

Apomorphic, 85

Appendicular bones, 24–25, 26, 28, 29 Appendicular system, 105

Aquatic

environment, 98, 106–108, 198 feeding patterns, 198 maneuvering, 159

origin of turtles, 349 respiration, 236

terrestrial habitats, 132, 140, 141 Aquatic turtles

adaptive directions, 107–108 courtship and interactions, 241–242 families, 94

feeding mechanism, 198–204 hunting strategies, 190–191 locomotion, 120–122

Index

Ar, A., 239, 248

Archelon, 33

Archosaur, 13 Aresco, M.J, 243 Ariel, M.

basal optic nucleus (BON), 322 BON and retinal image stability, 304 brainstem neurons, 315

DVR expressed significant GP levels, 310

GABAergic neurons and receptors, 323 Arimura, A., 327

Arnold, E.N., 65

Arribada (mass) nesting, 256 Arterial oxygen, 305 Arteries, 214

Ascenzi, P., 22

Ascher, P., 314

Ascorbate, 325 Ashcroft, F.M., 312

Ashley, L.M., 227, 231, 234

Astrochelys yniphora, 53, 57, 62, 75 Atland, P.D., 239, 244

ATP

adenosine, 317 anaerobic glycolysis, 307 cerebral ischemia, 306 K-ATPchannels, 312, 321 supply of oxygen, 302

ATPase, 309, 315 Auffenberg, W., 50, 226, 250

Australian Freshwater Turtles (Cann) accessory respiratory mechanisms, 236 biogeography, 226

clutch size, 246

sexual dimorphism, 240

Australian Sea Turtles (Bustard), 226, 240 Autapomorphy, 104

Autonomic nervous system, 316 Avise, J.C., 245, 295

AVT, 238

Ax, P., 347

B

Babb, M.E., 21 Baghdady, R., 312 Baker, P.J., 258, 259 Barbour, R.W.

Apalone, 165

diverse locomotor habits, 159 elongated neck, 164

living species, 188 sexual dimorphism, 240

Barlow, A.J., 6

Barney, R., 245

Barth, R., 98

Index

Basal fossil turtles, 348 Basal ganglia, 320

Basal optic nucleus (BON), 304, 322 Basibranchium, 175

Basioccipital, 169, 178 Bassenge, E., 321 Batagurid, 67 Bauplan

armor, 12–13, 67, 100, 104–106, 163, 188, 349 dermal armor, 345

evolutionary model, 347 head and neck, 163–165 heart, 213 hyobranchium, 189 lungs, 213 modifications, 100

paddles and flippers, 108–115 posterior zeugopod, 115 propulsion patterns, 122–127 pseudoclaws, 191

shoulder girdle and humerus morphometry, 117–120

skull, 189 system, 220

vertebrate pattern, 103–104 vertebrate skeleton, 105

Baur, G., 346

Beggs, K., 253

Beisser, C.J;, 189

Bekoff, A., 141

Belinsky, A., 256

Belkin, D.A., 304 Bellairs, A., 226, 240 Bels, V.

capture cycle, 198 courtship, 240

feeding behavior of M. terrapin, 191 food prehension modes, 208

fore limbs and swimming, 129 hyoid depression, 200 ingestion, 194

interlimb coordination, 159 kinematics of swimming, 124

limb, neck, jaws, coordination of, 192 limb movements and marine forms, 128 locomotor systems, 187

Malaclemys terrapin drinking behaviors, 189 mechanisms of thrust production, 142 terrestrial feeding is derived behavior, 208 terrestrial locomotion, 98, 131

Ben Ari, Y., 312 Bennett, D.H., 140, 141 Bentley, P.J., 349 Benzodiazepine, 316 Berge, C., 117

Berger, R., 306

357

Berger, U.V., 325

Bernier, P., 129

Berry, K.H., 21 Bhardwaj, A., 306 Bickler, P.E.

anoxia and energy savings, 315 extracellular AD in anoxic brain, 317 intracellular calcium, 320 N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors, 313–314

Biegon, A., 320

Biewener, A.A.

locomotor capacity, 159 locomotor systems, 140 muscle use and behavior, 141 sonomicrometry, 158

study of locomotion, 153 Billett, F.S., 253

Binding densities, 313, 318 Binding of GABA, 316, 318–319

Biochemical Adaptation (Hochachka), 306 Biochemical studies, 320

Biology of Sea Turtles, Vol. II (Lutz), 226, 239 Biology of Sea Turtles, Vol. I (Lutz), 226, 239 Biology of the Reptilia (Gans), 1, 3, 5, 322 Birchard, G.F., 253, 255, 256, 259

Biting, 200, 206–207

Bjorndal, K.A., 22, 188, 251, 295 Bladder, 234

Blanco, M., 328 Blanton, M.G., 318 Bleakney, J., 258 Blob, R.W.

electromyographic data, 108 locomotor forces, 158 locomotor systems, 151 maneuverability, 98

motor functions, 144, 152–153

T. scripta, 147

tail role and locomotion, 124, 140 Blood gases, 219, 220

Blood islands, 233

BMP (bone morphogenetic proteins), 5, 6 Bobyn, M.L., 260

Bodie, J.R., 124, 142 Body plans. See Bauplan Bohme, G.A., 321

BON (basal optic nucleus), 304, 310, 322 Bone, 3, 5, 9, 22, 24–25

appendicular bones, 24–25 appositional processes, 20 autopod, 115

cervical joints, 167–169 development, 17–18 diameters and lengths, 87–96 endochondral growth, 22 femoral motion, 145, 146–147

358

growth cone, 29–32 growth, size, 20, 24 growth studies, 33 measurement, 87–95

morphogenetic proteins (BMP), 5 morphology, 18

morphology and optical density, 18–20 osteology, 166–167

patterns, 6, 25 proximal, 85 shell, 48–53

size and mechanical behavior, 94, 157 subchondral, 23–24

weight, 98, 140, 141 zeugopod, 115

Bones and Cartilage (Hall), 10, 12 Bonin, F.

nest site selection, 251 number of clutches, 247 posterior marginal scutes, 252 sexual dimorphism, 240

Bony elements, character and homology, 9–10 Bookstein, F.L., 117

Booth, D.T., 257

Booth, J., 242 Boswell, C., 229

Bothremydidae, radiation, 101–102 Bou, J., 86

Bouchard, S.S., 188

Boulenger, G.A., 347 Boulon, R.H., 36 Bour, R., 59 Bourquin, O., 239 Boutilier, R.G., 302

Bowden, R.M., 252, 294 Bowen, B.W., 295 Boycott, R.C., 239 Brachiocephalic trunk, 214 Brain

ascorbate levels, 326

anoxia, and function in regions of, 310 ATP consumption, 302, 317

blood flow, 307 cerebral damage, 325 in crisis, 306

degenerative disorders, 325 divisions of, 301–302 hexokinase, 308 hyperglycemia, 309

hypoxic or ischemic events, 306 K-ATP channels, 312

lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), 309 melatonin, 324

metabolism and key enzymes, 307 neurotransmitter release regulation, 317 normoxic ATP demand, 311

Index

physiological and molecular adaptations, 304 protective compounds, 325

sexual differentiation, 304

Brain Energy Metabolism (Siesjo), 320 Brainerd, E.L., 199

Brainstem neurons, 315

Brain without Oxygen (Lutz)

Anoxic survival time of vertebrates, 305 excitatory amino acids, 321

K-ATP channels, 313

neural responsiveness to NO, 322 neurotransmitter release, 317

Bramble, D.M., 65, 70, 209 Breath-holding, adaptations, 213–214 Breathing, 105

Bredt, D.S., 321 Breeding

energy, 242

nesting phenology, 295 phase, 245

Brief Anatomy of the Turtle (Noble), 227, 231, 234 Brinkman, D.B., 102

Brochu, C.A., 347, 348 Broderick, A.C., 290, 295 Broin, F. de, 101–102, 104 Brooks, R.J.

growth and incubation, 256 in nesting phenology, 295

nest site selection and survivorship, 250 post-hatchling growth, 260 temperature-dependent sex determination, 254

Brooks, S.P.J., 307, 310, 314 Broom, R., 347, 348 Brumation, 214, 231 Bruning, G., 322

Buccal cavity, 189 ingestion cycle, 193, 205

intra-oral transport, 195–197 suction, 198, 200

transport-intrabuccal manipulation, 194 Buchanan, C.R., 18

Buchanan, T.S., 141 Buck, L.T., 315, 317, 321 Buffer, 330

Buford, J.A., 141 Buhlmann, K.A., 243 Bull, J.J.

environmental sex determination (ESD), 280 genetic variation for sex ratio, 294

heritable variability in nesting phenology, 295 temperature-dependent sex determination, 254 TSD and incubation temperature, 279

unisex nests, studies of, 284 Bulmer, M.G., 294

Burger, J., 239, 250

Burggren, W.W., 219

Index

Burke, A.C.

chelonians and carapacial ridge, 2 comparison of Lee’s theory, 105–106 condensed mesenchyme, 8

endoskeletal and exoskeletal components of carapace, 345

evolutionary model, 13 gastrulation, 4

ontogenetic development of carapace, 350 phases of ossification, 6–7

rib precursor cells, 5 vertebrates body plans, 139

Burmester, T., 328 Bury, R.B., 21, 239, 250

Bustard, H.R., 226, 240, 249 Butler, M., 159

Buttresses, 53, 107

C

Cadena Rueda, E.A., 101 Cadi, A., 202

Cagle, F.R.

aquatic and terrestrial habitats, 140 courtship rituals, 241

eggs retained in oviducts, 256 locomotion after hatching, 154–154 mating behavior, 240

shell and protection, 139 Calcium, 306

Calcium metabolism and incubation, 256 Callard, L.P., 232, 234

Callorhinus ursinus (fur seals), 38 Camacho, A., 318

Cameron, J.S., 312

Cammack, J., 325

Canalis collateralis vertebralis, 179 Cann, J.

clutch size, 246

sexual dimorphism, 240

vascularized villiform projections, 236 Cao, W., 325

Cao, Y., 348

Captive growth rates, 36 Captorhinids, 106 Captorhinomorphs, 346 Carapace

bones, 2–8 Chelonidae, 75

constraints and behavior, 187 costal bones, 104

dermal elements, 226 development, 345 distortion of, 73 early ancestors, 48

endoskeletal and exoskeletal components, 345

359

fontanels, 76–77

formation of carapacial bones, 4–5 kinesis, 58–59

length to egg size, 248 lungs, 216 ossification of, 5–6 plastron, 10

of Proganochelys, 47

protection from predators, 163–164 softshell, 77–78

variation in, 48–50 vault, 107

Carapace length (CL), 6, 20, 23, 36, 61, 66, 154, 239, 246–248

Carapacial ridge (CR), 4, 105 Cardinali, D.P., 324 Cardiopulmonary systems

cardiovascular shunts, 220–221 comparisons with other reptiles, 222–223 great vessels and major tributaries, 214–216 lungs, 216–219

pattern, 213–214

respiratory physiology, 221–222 ventilation, 219–220

Caretta caretta (loggerhead), 20, 22, 25, 56, 62, 73, 88, 98, 127, 128, 191, 220, 222, 234, 245, 253, 290, 291, 293

Carettochelys, 23, 50, 103, 106, 110–114, 126, 128, 128, 129, 130, 257, 285, 291

Caribemys, 101

Carney, J.M., 325 Carotid arteries, 214 Carpenter, C.C., 240, 241 Carpenter, J.M., 348

Carr, A.F., 239, 240, 257–258, 295 Carr, J.L., 253

Carr, M.H., 295

Carr, M.T., 311–312, 318 Carr, N., 251

Carr, T., 251

Carrier, D.R., 154, 157 Carroll, R.L., 12, 13, 208, 347 Cartilage

chondrocytes, 29–32 vascularization, 32

Carus, K.G., 9–10 Casamiquela, R.M., 98 Case, T.J., 36–38, 39 Casinos, A., 86, 87, 94–95 Caspases, 311

Castanet, J., 17, 18, 20, 21 Castiella, M.J., 86

Cauda cornu branchiale II, 178 Cauda hyoidea, 178, 179 Cauda occipitalis, 178

Cauda squamosi, 178

360

Caudal vertebra, 183 Cazalets, J.R., 153

CCL (curved carapace length), 36 Cebra-Thomas, J.

evolutionary model, 13 FGF-induced chemotaxis, 5 HNK-1+ cells, 11

nuchal and plastron bones formation, 8, 12 plastron bones from trunk neural crest, 10 Smad1, 6

Cell proliferation and temperature, 330 Cellular energy stores, 321

Central nervous system (CNS), 301 Central pattern generator (CPG), 141, 189 Ceratobranchial, 174, 178, 200, 204 Cerebellorubral pathway, 319

Cerebral damage, 325 Cervical anatomy and function

cervical system, morphology, 164–165, 167–169, 181–183

joints, 167–169

kinematics of snorkeling, 180–181 musculature - Apalone, 175–179 musculature - Chelodina, 169–175 osteology, 166–167, 183

retraction and cervical mobility, 179–180 Chalmers-Redman, R.M., 325

Chaloupka, M.Y., 260 Channel arrest, 313, 314 Chardard, D., 279 Charnier, M., 279 Charnov, E.L., 280, 292

Chelodina longicollis, 165–175, 180–184, 198–199, 201, 235, 244

Chelodina rugosa, 37, 251, 257, 258 Chelonia, 1, 12, 17, 61

Chelonia mydas (green) carapace scute patterns, 55

El Nino-Southern Oscillation and breeding, 242 melatonin and dark/light adaptation, 324

sex ratio, 291 skeletochronology of, 22 swimming speeds, 126–127

Chelonian anatomy of, 226

basic pattern, 103–106

body size and egg number, 246–247 carapacial ridge, 2, 75, 105

costals, 12–13

dietary fluctuations, 188 eggs, 246, 256

evolutionary history, 100–101, 347, 350 families, 94

life history traits, 260 limb structure, 86 penis, 236

Index

physiological functions of, 132 reproductive patterns, 248–249 reproductive structures, 226 shape of eggs, 246

zeugopod, 115 Chelonidae, 75–77

Chelydra, 9 families, 1

nuchal bone ossification, 6–8

Yntema stage 15, 4

Chelydra serpentina (snapping turtles), 21, 304, 37, 88, 117, 124, 126, 191, 228, 255, 293

Cherepanov, G.O. entoplastron formation, 77

epidermal scutes formation, 2 homology, 10

shell formation, 4

stages of development, 253

Chersina angulata, 62, 64, 246 Cheylan, M., 20, 21

Chitoku, T., 114

Choi, D.W., 309 Chondrocyte, 5, 12, 29–32

Chondro-osseous development, 22–32 Choo, B.L, 255

Chou, L.M., 255

Chow, M.C., 132 Christophe, M., 325 Chromosomes and TSD, 279

Chrysemys picta marginata (painted turtles) anoxia tolerance, 304

bone, 48

courtship rituals, 241–242 fontanels, 66

growth rings, 55 water, use of, 235

Chrysemys scripta, 108 Churchill, T.A., 259 Circadian rhythms, 324 Circulation, 219

Circulatory system, 213, 221–222 Citrate synthase (CS), 308

CL (carapace length), 6 Clade, vertebrates, 187

Cladistic analysis and clades, 346

Cladogram of superfamily Dermochelyidae, 34, 35 Claessens, L.P.A.M., 10, 13

Clark, K., 8, 10, 11

Clark, N.B., 256 Clark, P.J., 251, 252 Clark, V.M., 307 Claude, J.

shell morphology, 58

skull, hyobranchium, tongue analyses, 189 Testudinoidae, 97–98, 108, 109

Claussen, D.L.

Index

fecundity, 246

limb functions, additional data, 159 locomotion, 98

locomotion after hatching, 154 shell mass and body geometry, 120 tail role and propulsion, 124

Cleidoic egg, 238 Clitoris, 237

Cloaca, 233, 234, 244

Cloaca and associated structures, 234–237 Cloacal bursae, 235–236

Clough, W., 98, 124, 187, 191 Clutch

clutch size, 295

effects on sex ratio, 293–294 egg size, 249

endogenous/exogenous factors, 245 Clutches, 232, 247–248, 250, 280–282

Clutch size, nest chamber and thermal conditions, 295

CNS (central nervous system), 301 See also Brain ascorbate and glutathione (GSH), 325

eye part of, 322 HK activities, 309

ion channel activity studies, 314 muscarinic (acetylcholine) receptors, 316 pineal gland, 324

visual system of turtle, 304 CNS/PNS, 301

Coe, M.J., 232, 242, 249, 260 Coelomic cavity, 249 Cohen, G., 325

Coles, W.C., 20, 22 Collin, J.P., 324 Collis, M.G., 317 Combescot, D., 229

Common names of turtles

African softshell turtle, see Trionyx triunguis Aldabra tortoise, see Geochelone gigantea alligator snapping turtle, see Macrochelys

temminckii

Angonoka tortoise, see Astrochelys yniphora angulate or bowspirit tortoise, see Chersina

angulata

Australian big-headed turtle, see Emydura australis

Batagur, see Batagur baska

Bell’s hingeback, see Kinixys belliana Blanding’s turtle, see Emydoidea blandingii box turtle, see Terrapene carolina

Caspian turtle, see Mauremys caspica chicken turtle, see Deirochelys reticularia

Chinese softshell turtle, see Pelodiscus sinesis Colombian slider turtle, see Trachemys

callirostris

cooters, see Pseudemys

361

desert tortoise, see Gopherus agassizii diamondback terrapin, see Malaclemys terrapin Dipsochelys elephantine, see Geochelone

gigantea

flatback sea turtle, see Natator depressus

Florida softshell turtles, see Apalone ferox Galapagos tortoise, see Geochelone

elephantopus and Geochelone nigra geometric tortoise, see Psammobates

geometricus

giant Amazon river turtle, see Podocnemis expansa

gibba turtle, see Phrynops gibbus

gopher tortoise, see Gopherus polyphemus green sea turtle, see Chelonia mydas hawksbill sea turtle, see Eretmochelys

imbricata

Hermann’s tortoise, see Testudo hermanni impressed tortoise, see Manouria impressa

Indian flapshell turtle, see Lissemys punctata

Indian star tortoise, see Geochelone elegans Kemp’s ridley sea turtle, see Lepidochelys

kempii

leatherback sea turtle, see Dermochelys coriacea

loggerhead sea turtle, see Caretta caretta long-necked or snake-necked turtle, see

Chelodina longicollis

Malayan flatshell turtle, see Notochelys platynota

Malayan softshell turtle, see Dogania subplana map turtle, see Graptemys geographica marginated tortoise, see Testudo marginata Mexican mud turtle, see Staurotypus

triporcatus

mud turtles, see Kinosternun

musk turtle, see Sternotherus odoratus northern snake-necked turtle, see Chelodina

rugosa

northern snapping turtle, see Elseya dentata olive ridley sea turtle, see Lepidochelys

olivacea

Orbigny’s slider, see Trachemys dorbigni Ouachita map turtle, see Graptemys

ouachitensis

padloper tortoise, see Homopus signatus painted terrapin, see Callagur borneoensis painted turtle, see Chrysemys picta

pancake tortoise, see Malacochersus tornieri pig-nosed turtle, see Carettochelys ploughshare tortoise, see Astrochelys yniphora radiated tortoise, see Astrochelys radiata red-headed Amazon river turtle, see

Podocnemis erythrocephala

Senegal flapshell turtle, see Cycloderma senegalensis

362

slider turtle, see Trachemys scripta snapping turtle, see Chelydra serpentina spiny softshell turtle, see Apalone spinifera spot-legged turtle, see Rhinoclemmys

punctularia

spur-thighed tortoise, see Testudo graeca Sulawesi forest turtle, see Leucocephalon

yuwonoi

tent tortoise, see Psammobates tentorius Tortisternum novemcostatum, see Pelodiscus

sinesis

twist-necked turtle, see Platemys platycephala West African mud turtle, see Pelusios castaneus wood turtle, see Glyptemys insculpta

Yangtze giant softshell turtle, see Rafetus swinhoei

yellow-spotted Amazon river turtle, see Podo Comparative Physiology of Respiratory

Mechanisms (Steen), 236 Computed tomography (CT), 219 Conant, R.C., 229

Conditions for incubation, 253 Congdon, J.D.

breeding and energy, 242 hatchlings and egg size, 249

heritable variability in nesting phenology, 295 patterns of nesting seasons, 243

pelvic gap and egg width, 252 sperm storage tubules, 244–245 yolk and energy source, 239

Conlon, J.M., 13, 106, 348

Connors, B.W., 316, 319

Contributions to the Natural History of the United States of America (Agassiz)

corpora lutea, 232 developmental stages, 253 ovaries, 231

testes, 227 vertebrates, 46

Converse, S.J., 258 Cook, R.D., 36 Cook’s distance, 36 Coomber, P., 308 Cooper, W.E., 229, 240 Cope, E.D., 346 Corneau, S.G., 219

Corpora albicantia, 232 Corpora atretica, 231, 232 Corpora lutea, 232 Corpus cavernosum, 236

Corpus fibrosum, 236

Corpus luteum, 232 Corpus spongiosum, 236

Corsochelys (dermochelyid sea turtle), 33 Cortex, 227

Cortico-cervical muscular system, 181–183

Index

Costal areolae, 74

bones, 1–12, 50, 75 scute variation, 56, 73

Costanzo, J.P., 239, 258–259 Courtship, 240–242 Cowan, K.J., 302

Cox, W.A., 249

CPG (central pattern generator), 189 CR (carapacial ridge), 4, 13

Crain, A.D., 284 Crama, Y.J.M., 240

Cranial neural crest cell characteristics, 11 Cranial neural crest cells, 10, 11 Cranio-cervical system, 164, 183 Cranium, 175

Crastz, F., 253

Creuzet, S., 12

Crews, D., 229, 232, 304

CR (carapacial ridge) formation, 4 Crista mediana ventralis, 175, 178, 179 Crowder, L.B., 23

Crowell, P.C., 244

Crown-group diapsids (Sauria), 347 Cryptodires, 102, 164, 181–183

CS (citrate synthase), 308

CT (computed tomography), 219 Cubo, J., 94–95

Cuillon, J., 255 Cull-Candy, S.G., 314 Curtin, A.J., 20, 21

Curved carapace length (CCL), 36 Cyclanorbines species, 78

Cycle for ingestion and transport, 193 Cycle phases, 231

Cycles and nesting patterns, 243–244

Cycloderma senegalensis, 50, 78, 80 Cyrus, R., 232

Cytochrome c oxidase (CO), 307–308, 327

D

DA (dopamine), 321 Dalrymple, G.H.

Apalone as predators, 165 hierarchical analysis, 291–292 predatory habits and diet, 154 unisex nests, 284

Das Phylogentische System (Ax), 347 Datta, P.M., 102

Davenport, J.

Chrysemys scripta, 108 drag-based propulsion, 122

feeding behavior and fore flippers, 191 food resources, 198

gaits, 126–127

Index

herbivorous species, 188 kinematics of swimming, 124 locomotion, 126, 187

Malaclemys terrapin drinking, 189 marine vs. freshwater swimming, 125 pectoral girdle, 120

swimming, 98 Davenport, J.S.

aquatic and terrestrial habitats, 140 force measurement, 158

Dawson, D.A., 321

Dawson, T.E., 292

Deban, S.M., 163

DeBeer, G.S., 347 DeBraga, M., 106, 347, 348 Dedja, A., 327

Deeming, D.C., 253, 279 Deformities, 71–73 Degenerative disorders, 325 Dehydration resistance, 258

Deirochelys reticularia, 239, 243, 252, 256, 257 De la Fuente, M.S., 101, 102

Delbarre, B., 325 DeMacro, V.G., 238 Demuth, J.P., 284 Denny, M.W., 140 DePari, J.A., 258 Depecker, M.

allometric shape vectors, 121 correlation, 119

principal component analyses (PCA), 118 Procrustes, 117

shoulder girdle, discriminant traits, 120 Deraniyagala, P.E.P., 98

Dermal armor, salient feature, 345 Dermal bone

bones, 2–4, 8, 23, 105 costal bones, 105 ossification, 1 pectoral girdle, 345 plastron, 9

shell, 105–106

Dermal cells respond to BMPs, 6 Dermochelyidae, 33

Dermochelys coriacea (leatherback) carapace and plastron, 48, 57, 66, 70, 77 chondro-osseous development, 18, 22–32,

34–37 development, 253 eggs, 239, 246

growth, implications for, 33–39 incubation, 256

limbs, 88

locomotion, 98, 106, 112–114, 124, 126, 128–131 marine turtles, 18

muscular ridge, 219

363

paternity, sperm storage, 287 phylogeny, 32–33

sex ratio, 287, 291, 292 sexual maturity, 23, 33 size, 239

skeletal neotony, 77 Desmatochelys (sea turtle), 33 Development

arrest, 256–257 carapace, 2–7, 3 plastron bones, 8–10 shell, 1–13, 345 spicules, 9

stages, 4, 6–8, 253, 257, 280, 345

Development of the Vertebrate Skull (DeBeer), 347 De Vree, F., 194

Dewey, T., 203

Diaphysis, 25, 87 Diapsids, 13, 106, 346–350 Dichotomous key, 56 Diet, 188

Di Luca, M., 318

Dinkelacker, S.A. emergence strategy, 258 freezing, 259

nest temperature fluctuation, 254 overwintering and buffering system, 260 patterns of nesting seasons, 243

Dipsochelys elephantine, See Geochelone gigantea

Dobie, J.L., 229

Dodd, C.K., 226, 240, 246

Dogania suplana, 50, 59, 78 Doll, C.J., 304

Dominici, P., 98 Doody, S., 290, 294, 295 Dopamine (DA), 321

Dopamine, in retina, 323 Dopamine, effects on brain, 320 Dorizzi, M., 280

Dorsal ventricular ridge (DVR), 308, 310 Downie, R., 253

Drag-based propulsion, 122 Draud, M., 258

Dreslik, M.J., 226

Drucker, E.G., 159

Drukarch, B., 316 Duan, S., 310 Dubocovich, M.L., 324 Dugan, L.L., 306 Duncker, H.R., 217 Dunlap, C.E., 220–221 Dunson, W.A., 236 Dutton, D.L., 36 Duvall, D., 239

DVR (dorsal ventricular ridge), 308, 318, 324

364

E

EAA (excitatory amino acids), 306 Earhart, G.M., 98, 108, 144, 147 Ebadi, M., 325

Ebner, F.F., 302

Eckert, K.L., 22, 23, 239, 283 Eckert, S.A., 22, 222 Eckrich, C.E., 282 Ecological strategies, 129

Ecology, Exploitation, and Conservation of River Turtles (Moll), 226, 250

Ecology and reproductive biology, 225–226

Ecology of Adaptive Radiation (Schluter), 98 Ectoderm, 2, 4–5, 11, 105, 200, 222, 304, 326–327 Ectothermic turtles, 200, 304

Eder, D.J., 324 Edwards, R., 312, 313 EEG, 315

Egg constraints, 252 Eggs

albumen and embryo, 239 amniotic, 238

conditions for incubation, 253 developmental arrest, 256–257 fecundity, 246

fertilization and sperm storage, 245 and flood waters, 251

intraspecific variations, 249 mass and shell, 238 number of, 246–247

number of clutches and size/shape of, 248 protection of, 250

relationship between body size and egg size,

247

reproductive structures and strategies, 238–239 shape, 246, 248

shell structure, 255 size, 248, 249, 252, 255 tidal inundation, 256 water relationships, 255

Ehinger, B., 323

Ehrenfeld, D.W.

environment and nest site selection, 250 nesting behaviors, 240

nest site selection, 251

oviposition and use of hind feet, 252 water, use of, 235, 236

Ekanayake, S., 6 Electromyography (EMG), 108, 143

Electromyography for Experimentalists (Loeb), 143 El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and breeding,

242

Elseya dentata, 37, 55, 243, 257 Embryonic development

development and incubation, 253–257

Index

eggs and flood waters, 251, 256 egg shell provides calcium, 239

gas exchange impacted by hydric conditions, 256

gonads, 227

plastron formation, 8, 10 shell, 2, 4

stages of, 253 terrestrial habitat, 103

vas deferens (Wolffian duct, mesonephric duct),

227

Embryonic diapause, 257 Embryonic metabolism, 256 Embryos

albumen, 239 CR and ribs, 4

dermal cells and BMPs, 6

development, 1–13, 17–18, 22, 24, 46, 105, 253–256, 280, 345, 347, 350

developmental stages, 257

mapping of trunk neural crest cells, 12 nest site selection, 250–251 post-ovipositional arrest, 256–257 regulatory genes and signals, 4–7, 9–12 scute abnormalities, 71

shape of eggs, 246

temperature-dependent sex determination, 254 yolk energy supply, 254

Emergence behavior, 323 Emergence strategy, 258 EMG (electromyography)

burst pattern comparison, locomotion, 155 cryptodires, 183

kinematics and muscle activation, 140 signals, 143

swimming and walking, 151, 154 timing and intensity of, 147

Emydidae, 94, 259

Emydoidea blandingii, 37, 227, 231, 243, 251, 254, 258

Emydura australis, 50, 53, 236, 243 Encyclopedia of Turtles (Pritchard) arribada (mass) nesting, 256

diet, specialized or generalized, 188 hypertrophied forelimbs, 110 marine turtles, 85

nest site selection, 251 number of eggs, 246 sexual dimorphism, 240 shell reduction, 187

Trionychidae and Carettochelyidae habitats, 103 Endochondral bone, 2, 5–6, 22–26, 105 Endochondral growth, 22

Endochondral ossification, 5, 6

Endocrine control of reproductive cycle, 237–238 Endometrial glands, 234

Index

Endoskeletal–exoskeletal components of carapace, 345

Endoskeleton, 10 Endosteal resorption, 20 Energy expenditures, 307

Energy reserves and incubation, 256

Energy supply and anaerobic glycolysis, 307–310 Engstrom, T.N., 159

Enlow, D.H., 17, 18, 20, 21

Entoplastron, 8, 9, 10, 48, 66, 69, 70, 75–77, 78 Environmental sex determination (ESD), 280 Environments

aquatic, 106–108, 198 aquatic and terrestrial, 132 breeding, 242

HK and LDH activity, 309 hydric, 235

incubation and temperature, 255 influence on growth rates, 260 nest site selection, 250–251 nesting seasons, 243 overwintering, 258–260

rate of development in nest, 253 Enzymes and metabolism, 327

Eosphargis, 33

Epaxial musculature, 175 Epidermal, 2, 3, 11, 226 Epididymis and puberty, 229 Epiphyseal joint cartilage, 25 Epiphysis, 25–26 Epiplastra, 10, 66

Epithelial–mesenchymal interactions, 4, 105 Erecinska, M., 311

Erection, 236–237

Eretmochelys imbricata, 23, 51, 53, 57, 77, 88, 128, 215, 246, 284, 288, 291

ERK (extracellular regulated kinase), 327 Ernst, C.H.

Apalone as predators, 165

corpora albicantia and ovulation, 232 diverse locomotor habits, 159 elongated neck, 164

emydid lineage, 142

feral Trachemys breeding, 203 habitat preference, 141

living species of turtles, 188 number of eggs, 246

post-nuptial gamete maturation, 244 sexual dimorphism, 240

shell, 139–140

species and accessibility, 226 testis and maturity, 229 vitellogenesis, 244

ESD (environmental sex determination), 280 Eskiocak, S., 324

Esophagus, 197, 200, 204, 205

365

Esparza, J.L., 324

Esteban, M., 18 Estrogen, 237–238 Etchberger, C.R., 256 Eureptilia, 346

Evaporative water loss, 258 Evolution

aquatic specialization, 127 bones, 12

feeding/drinking, 189, 208–210

global warming and fate of TSD turtles, 292–295

habitat and locomotion, 132 Hox genes, 12

locomotion, 100, 129, 130–132 marine environments, 102–103

phylogenetic hypothesis of pareiasaurian relationships and, 347

reproductive structures and strategies, 236 shell, 226–227

TSD and unisex vs. mixed broods, 295–296 unisex nests and climatic events, 280

Evolutionary development, 302 Evolutionary models, 12–13, 33, 347

Evolutionary relationships, 34–35, 159, 345–350

Evolution of Sex Determining Mechanisms (Bull), 279

Ewert, M.A.

clutch effects on sex ratio, 293–294

clutches and endogenous/exogenous factors, 245 developmental stages, 253

egg shell structure and environment, 238 ellipsoidal eggs, 246

embryonic development and environment, 253 embryonic diapause, 257

environmental variability, 294 fecundity, 246

hatchlings and egg size, 249 number of clutches, 247, 248 oviduct, egg sizes and shapes, 251 post-ovipositional arrest, 256–257 pre-copulatory/mating behavior, 226 rate of osteogenesis, 6

reproductive activity and latitudes, 295 sexual dimorphism, 240

shell formation, 4 temperature-dependent sex determination

(TSD), 254, 279 yolk reserve, 239

Ewing, H.E., 245

Excitatory amino acids (EAA), 306 Excitatory neurotransmitters, 318–321 Excitotoxic cell death, 318 Excitotoxic compounds, 307, 320 Extensor carpi radialis, 116

Extinct turtles