Definite Indefinite

Specific the tiger a tiger

reference the tigers (some) tigers

the ink (some) ink

Generic the tiger ink

reference a tiger

tigers

With the specific definite reference, the definite article is used for all noun classes: Where is the pen, the pens, the ink I bought?

The definite article refers to something that the listener is able to identify either from the extralinguistic situation or context. The reference of the definite article can be derived from the immediate situation.

E.g. Pass me the salt, please. The women over there work with my sister. Where do you want me to put the box? (= you can see which box, in Slovak we use demonstrative pronouns for the immediate situational reference).

The definite article is used in broader situational contexts which are limited enough for the listener to identify who or what is referred to because of shared knowledge. The nouns the postman, the supermarket, the library, the pub, the station, the garden, the cinema, the bank, the theatre, the country, the seaside refer to an identifiable place, but without referring to a specific one.

The reference may be supplied by information from the preceding text (anaphoric reference) direct or indirect or from the following text (cataphoric reference).

In direct anaphoric reference there are 2 occurrences of the same noun. E.g. Once upon a time there was a king and the king had 7 daughters. John ordered a book and the book has just arrived. (the determiner is bound to an earlier mention of the noun).

In indirect anaphoric reference the hearer infers the reference from what has been said. E.g. when the topic of a farm or holiday was introduced into discourse, the people and things connected with the topic are used with the definite articles (the cows, the tractors). We had a good time on holiday. The hotel was comfortable and the beach was only 10 minutes away.

Cataphoric reference is identical with postmodification by an of phrase: the history of China, the literature of America or by a relative clause: The car Jill bought has been stolen. The man who is standing over there is my brother.

With the specific indefinite reference singular count nouns take the indefinite article, while plural countable and mass nouns take the zero article or “light quantitative article” some. E.g. I want a pen/some pens/some ink. The indefinite article is used when the referent has not been mentioned before and is unfamiliar to the hearer. E.g. Her son was killed in a train accident last year.

With generic reference the distinctions of number and definiteness are neutralized. A speaker uses generic nouns to make generalizations. A generic noun represents a whole class of things, it is not a specific, real, concrete thing, but rather a symbol of a whole group.

The following sentences have similar meanings: A tiger is beautiful. The tiger is beautiful. Tigers are beautiful. The speaker is talking about any tiger, all tigers, tigers in general.

The generic use of the indefinite article refers to any representative member of the class. For example, a class of animals, people, things. We also use the definite article for the same purpose. The generic use of the zero article refers to the class seen as an undifferentiated whole. Other examples: Ostriches cannot fly. Ink is lighter than oil. Fruit is good for you. Zero article is used to make generalizations with plural countable nouns (tigers) and with uncountable nouns (fruit).

Usually a/an is used with a singular generic countable noun:

A window is made of glass. A doctor heals people. Parents must give a child love.

However, the is sometimes used with a singular generic countable noun. “Generic the” is commonly used with:

- species of animals: The blue whale is the largest mammal on earth

- inventions: Who invented the telephone?

- musical instruments: I´d like to learn to play the piano.

Common nouns: exceptions in article usage

Countable nouns take the zero article chiefly in

-idiomatic expressions e.g. go by car but look at the car, be in bed (resting) but sit on the bed

-institutions: go to/be in church, prison, hospital, be at school, at university, at home, go home, leave town, be in town, but admire the church, walk round the prison, redecorate the hospital, drive past the school (purpose vs. building distinction)

-means of transport: travel by bus, car, train, plane, but sit on the bicycle, be on the bus, sleep in the car, take the train, be on the plane

-times of the day and night with at, by, after, before: at dawn, at sunrise, around midnight, at night, by day, but during the day, admire the sunrise, in the afternoon, wake up in the night, in the evening

-meals: have lunch, at, after, before, breakfast, lunch, tea, dinner, but prepare the dinner, the lunch he gave us was delicious

-parallel structures: day by day, face to face, hand in hand, arm in arm, from right to left, but he took her by the arm, keep to the right

Proper nouns

Basic rule: zero article + proper noun

Proper nouns with no article - regular examples:

1. Personal names with or without titles: Dr., Mr., General Arthur, Professor Smith, President Kennedy, Lord, Captain, Lady, family names: Father, Mother

2. Temporal names and festivals: Christmas, Easter, Independence Day; names of months and days of the week: September, Monday

3. Geographical names: continents: Africa, America, Europe, countries: Brazil, Slovakia, cities: London, Paris, lakes: Lake Michigan; mountains: Mount Everest, High Tatras

4. Names of buildings, streets, bridges: Windsor Castle, Buckingham Palace, Westminster Abbey, Oxford Street, Paddington Station, Kennedy Airport, Westminster Bridge

5. Magazines and periodicals: Time, Vogue, Forbes.

Proper nouns with the definite article - exceptions to the main rule:

1. Plural names in general: the Wilsons, the Netherlands, the Hebrides, mountain ranges: the Alps

2. Geographical names: rivers: the Avon, the Danube; seas, oceans: the Baltic, the Pacific, canals: the Panama Canal

3. Public institutions: hotels and restaurants: the Grand Hotel, theatres, cinemas, clubs: the Globe; museums, libraries: the Tate Gallery, the British Museum

4. Newspapers: The Economist, The Observer, The New York Times