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1.5. THE PASSIVE VOICE

В английском языке имеется два залога действительный (the Active Voice) и

страдательный (the Passive Voice).

Глагол в страдательном залоге выражает действие, которое направлено на лицо или предмет, выраженное подлежащим:

The dinner was cooked by John last night.

Вчера обед был приготовлен Джоном.

Страдательный залог образуется при помощи глагола to be в соответствующем времени и причастия II смыслового глагола. В страдательном залоге употребляются следующие времена:

*При изменении глагола из действительного залога в страдательный меняется вся конструкция предложения. При изменении предложения из активной формы в пассивную, дополнение предложения в активной форме становится подлежащим предложения в пассивной форме; глагол действительного залога становится глаголом страдательного залога, а подлежащее предложения в активной форме становится предложным дополнением, которое вводится предлогом by или вовсе опускается:

*Предлог by употребляется в страдательном залоге перед дополнением, если речь идёт о лице или предмете, совершающем действие; предлог with в страдательном залоге так же, как и в действительном залоге, перед дополнением означает орудие или инструмент, посредством которого совершается действие:

Tolstoy’s works are read by millions.

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The road was illuminated by the moon.

The house is surrounded by a fence.

The snake was killed by the hunter with a stone.

The soup is eaten with a spoon.

Упражнение 12. Измените предложения из активного залога в пассивный залог.

1. We received this letter after his departure. 2. Have the dogs ever attacked you? 3. Bees gather honey from the flowers. 4. The storm drove the ship against the rock. 5. Who discovered the circulation of the blood? 6. The man is selling ice-cream but he is not selling chocolate ice-cream. 7. The little boy showed us the way. (2cases) 8. They offered her some interesting work. (2 cases) 9. The doctor ordered her a long rest. (2cases) 10. They often speak about him. 11. Everybody laughed at this funny animal. 12. We have been looking for you. 13. We shall insist upon strict discipline. 14. They teach pupils English and French at this school.

1.6. ПРЯМАЯ И КОСВЕННАЯ РЕЧЬ

При переводе повествовательного предложения из прямой речи в косвенную производятся следующие изменения:

1.Глагол to say как сказуемое главного предложения при наличии косвенного дополнения заменяется соответствующей формой глагола to tell или употребляется без дополнения, указывающего на лицо:

He said to me, «The novel is very interesting».

He told me that the novel was very interesting. Или: He said that the novel was very interesting.

2.Личные и притяжательные местоимения придаточного предложения соответственно смыслу могут меняться:

He said, «I was ill last summer».

He said (that) he had been ill last summer.

She repeated, «I work in a textile mill».

She repeated (that) she worked in a textile mill.

3.Ряд слов, обозначающих время действия или место действия, близкое говорящему, при переводе из прямой речи в косвенную меняется на слова, обозначающие время или место действия более отдалённое:

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4. Если глагол в главном предложении стоит в одном из прошедших времён, то время глагола прямой речи меняется в соответствии с правилами согласования времён:

Перевод в косвенную речь повествовательных предложений

При обращении прямой речи в косвенную образуется сложноподчинённое предложение. Главное присоединяется к придаточному при помощи союза that, который может быть опущен.

She said, «Mike will come at 6 o’clock». – She said (that) Mike would come at 6 o’clock.

My sister said, «I have already seen this film». – She said that she had already seen that film.

He said to his friend, «I am busy». – He told his friend that he was busy.

Упражнение 13. Передайте следующие предложения в косвенной речи.

1. Masha said: «I usually spend my holiday in the south». 2. She said: «I spent my holiday in the Crimea last year». 3. He said: «I am going to a rest-home tomorrow». 4. Ann said to us: «They haven’t come yet». 5. She said to us: «They arrived in St. Petersburg yesterday». 6. Nick said: «I have never been to London. I think I shall go there next year». 7. He said: «They are leaving next Monday». 8. The clerk said to them: «You can leave the key with the maid upstairs». 9. Oleg said: «My room is on the second floor». 10. He said: «I am sure she will ring me up when she is back in St. Petersburg». 11. Misha said: «I saw them at my parents’ house last year». 12. «I don’t go to this shop very often», she said. 13. Tom said: «I have already had breakfast, so I am not hungry». 14. «I am going to the theatre tonight», he said to me. 15. Mike said: «I spoke to Mr. Brown this morning». 16. He said to her: «I shall do it if I have time». 17. The teacher said to the class: «We shall discuss this subject tomorrow». 18. «You are an excellent cook. Everything is very tasty», said my guest to me.

Упражнение 15. Передайте предложения в косвенной речи.

1. She said, «Is John at home, Mrs Brown?» 2. He asked, «Lily, are your friends in town?» 3. The girl said, «Is your teacher a kind man?» 4. Grandmother said, «Is it hot today, Mary?» 5. Mother said, «Are you very busy, Tom?» 6. I said to Boris, «Does your friend live in London?» 7. Nick said to his friend, «Will you stay at the Hilton?» 8. He said to me, «Do you often go to see your friends?» 9. He said to me, «Will you see your friends before you leave St. Petersburg?» 10. Mike said to Jane, «Will you come to the railway station to see me off?» 11. She said to me, «Have you sent them a telegram?» 12. She said to me, «Did you send them a telegram yesterday?» 13. I said to Mike, «Have you packed your suitcase?» 14. I said to Kate, «Did anybody meet you at the station?» 15. I said to her, «Can you give me their address?» 16. I asked Tom, «Have you had breakfast?» 17. I asked my sister, «Will you stay at home or go for a walk after dinner?» 18. I said to my mother, «Did anybody come to see me?» 19. I asked my sister, «Will Nick call for you on the way to school?» 20. Mary said to Peter, «Have you shown your photo to Dick?»

Перевод в косвенную речь специальных вопросов

При переводе в косвенную речь специальных вопросов порядок слов в предложении меняется так же, как и при переводе общих вопросов, т.е. он становится таким же, как и в утвердительном предложении. При этом специальный вопрос присоединяется к главному при помощи того вопросительного слова, с которого начинается вопрос.

Упражнение 16. Передайте следующие предложения в косвенной речи.

1.«Why did our team lose the game?» said Vera. «It has always been very strong». 2. «Where have you put my book, Mary?» said Tom. «I cannot find it». 3. «Whom are you waiting for, boys?» asked the man. 4. «Which of you can answer my question?» the teacher asked the pupils. 5. She said to me: «How long are you going to stay in the country?» 6. He asked me: «When will you go to the canteen?» 7. I said to Nick: «Where are you going?» 8. I said to him: «How long will it take you to get there?» 9. They asked him: «What time does the train start?» 10. Ann said to Mike: «When did you leave London?» 11. She said to Boris: «When will you be back home?» 12. Boris said to them: «How can I get to the railway station?» 13. He said to her: «Where do you usually spend your summer holiday?» 14. Mother said to me: «Who has brought

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this parcel?» 15. I said to Becky: «What kind of book has your friend brought you?» 16. I asked my uncle: «How long did you stay in Crimea?» 17. She asked me: «Why didn’t you come here yesterday?» 18. Mary asked Tom: «What time will you come here tomorrow?» 19. She asked me: «What will you do tomorrow if you are not busy at your office?» 20. She asked me: «How much did you pay for it?»

Часть 2. Тексты для чтения

2.1.The Economic Environment (ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКАЯ СРЕДА)

The economy comprises millions of people and thousands of firms as well as the government and local authorities, all taking decisions about prices and wages, what to buy, sell, produce, export, import and many other matters. All these organizations and the decisions they take play a prominent part in shaping the business environment in which firms exist and operate.

The economy is complicated and difficult to control and predict, but it is certainly important to all businesses. You should be aware that there are times when businesses and individuals have plenty of funds to spend and there are times when they have to cut back on their spending. This can have enormous implications for business as a whole.

When the economy is enjoying a boom, firms experience high sales and general prosperity. At such times, unemployment is low and many firms will be investing funds to enable them to produce more. They do this because consumers have plenty of money to spend and firms expect high sales. It naturally follows that the state of the economy is a major factor in the success of firms.

However, during periods when people have less to spend many firms face hard times as their sales fall. Thus, the economic environment alters as the economy moves into a recession. At that time, total spending declines as income falls and unemployment rises. Consumers will purchase cheaper items and cut expenditure on luxury items such as televisions and cars.

Changes in the state of the economy affect all types of business, though the extent to which they are affected varies. In the recession of the early 1990s the high street banks suffered badly. Profits declined and, in some cases, losses were incurred. This was because fewer people borrowed money from banks, thus denying them the opportunity to earn interest on loans, and a rising proportion of those who did borrow defaulted on repayment. These so-called "bad debts" cut profit margins substantially. Various forecasters reckoned that the National Westminster Bank's losses in the case of Robert Maxwell's collapsing business empire amounted to over £ 100 million.

No individual firm has the ability to control this aspect of its environment. Rather, it is the outcome of the actions of all the groups who make up society as well as being influenced by the actions of foreigners with whom the nation has dealings.

VOCABULARY NOTES

to comprise – включать в себя, составлять local authorities – местные органы власти

to take (syn. to make) decisions – принимать решения

to play a prominent part – играть заметную (значительную) роль

to shape the environment – формировать обстановку, среду, окружение to predict (syn. to forecast) – предсказывать

to be aware – осознавать, знать

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to cut back on spending – сокращать расходы

enormous implications – большое значение, смысл, влияние general prosperity – всеобщее процветание

to enable smb to do smth – делать возможным для кого-то, позволять кому- что-либо делать

consumers – потребители to alter – изменяться

a recession – упадок

total spending – общие, суммарные расходы to decline – снижаться

income – доход unemployment – безработица

to purchase (syn. to buy) – покупать

to cut expenditure – сокращать расходы luxury items – предметы роскоши

to affect (syn. to influence smb, smth) – влиять the extent – степень

to some extent – в некоторой степени

the high street banks – центральные банки to suffer badly – сильно пострадать profits – прибыль

to incur (syn. to bear, to suffer) losses – нести убытки, потери to borrow from – занимать, брать взаймы

to deny the opportunity – лишать возможности to deny – отрицать

to earn interest – получать процентный доход loans – ссуды, займы

to default on repayment – не выполнять обязательств по выплате (долгов, процентов и т. п.)

a debt – долг

profit margins – размеры прибыли

the outcome of the actions – результат действий to make up society – составлять общество

to have dealings – иметь торговые (деловые) связи

Assignments (задания)

/. Suggest the Russian equivalents

the government and local authorities; firms experience high sales; their sales fall; total spending declines as income falls; luxury items; the high street banks suffered badly; to earn interest on loans; so-called "bad debts"

II.Translate using all the active vocabulary possible

1.Решение вопроса о распределении ограниченных ресурсов в эко номике (обществе) зависит от того, что именно, каким способом и для кого данное общество намерено производить.

2.Цены на нефть стабильно растут и отсюда, естественно, следует, что потребители нефти пытаются более экономно её использовать.

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3.Невероятный скачок цен на нефть в 70-х годах привел к резкому изменению экономической среды в целом. Однако результатом этого было лишь несущественное снижение объёма продаж.

4.Резкое снижение спроса на нефть способствовало росту производ ства заменителей нефти.

2.2.MARKETS (РЫНКИ)

The Role of Market (Роль рынка)

Reports in the press tend to say "the market did this" or "the market expected good news on the economic front", as if the market were a single living entity with a single conscious mind. This is not, of course, the case. To understand reports of market behaviour you have to bear in mind the way the market works.

A market is simply a mechanism, which allows individuals or organizations to trade with each other. Markets bring together buyers and sellers of goods and services. In some cases, such as a local fruit stall, buyers and sellers meet physically. In other cases, such as the stock market, business can be transacted over the telephone, almost by remote control. There's no need to go into these details. Instead, we use a general definition of markets.

A market is a shorthand expression for the process by which households' decisions about consumption of alternative goods, firms' decisions about what and how to produce, and workers' decisions about how much and for whom to work are all reconciled by adjustment of prices.

Prices of goods and of resources, such as labour, machinery and land, adjust to ensure that scarce resources are used to produce those goods and services that society demands.

Much of economics is devoted to the study of how markets and prices enable society to solve the problems of what, how and for whom to produce. Suppose you buy a hamburger for your lunch. What does this have to do with markets and prices? You chose the cafe because it was fast, convenient and cheap. Given your desire to eat, and your limited resources, the low hamburger price told you that this was a good way to satisfy your appetite. You probably prefer steak but that is more expensive. The price of steak is high enough to ensure that society answers the "for whom" question about lunchtime steaks in favour of someone else.

Now think about the seller's viewpoint. The cafe owner is in business because, given the price of hamburger meat, the rent and the wages that must be paid, it is still possible to sell hamburgers at a profit. If rents were higher, it might be more profitable to sell hamburgers in a cheaper area or to switch to luxury lunches for rich executives on expense accounts. The student behind the counter is working there because it is a suitable part-time job, which pays a bit of money. If the wage were much lower it would hardly be worth working at all. Conversely, the job is unskilled and there are plenty of students looking for such work, so owners of cafes do not have to offer very high wages.

Prices are guiding your decision to buy a hamburger, the owner's decision to sell hamburgers, and the student's decision to take the job. Society is allocating resources - meat, buildings, and labour - into hamburger production thrvugh the price system. If nobody liked hamburgers, the owner could not sell enough at a price that covered the

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cost of running the cafe and society would devote no resources to hamburger production. People's desire to eat hamburgers guides resources into hamburger production. However, if cattle contracted a disease, thereby reducing the economy's ability to produce meat products, competition to purchase more scarce supplies of beef would bid up the price of beef, hamburger producers would be forced to raise prices, and consumeis would buy more cheese sandwiches for lunch. Adjustments in prices would encourage society to reallocate resources to reflect the increased scarcity of cattle.

There were several markets involved in your purchase of a hamburger. You and the cafe owner were part of the market for lunches. The student behind the counter was part of the local labour market. The cafe owner was part of the local wholesale meat market and the local market for rented buildings. These descriptions of markets are not very precise. Were you part of the market for lunches, the market for prepared food or the market for sandwiches to which you would have turned if hamburgers had been more expensive? That is why we have adopted a very general definition of markets, which emphasizes that they are arrangements through, which prices influence the allocation of scarce resources.

VOCABULARY NOTES

to bear in mind (syn. to keep in mind) – иметь в виду a local fruit stall – фруктовый ларёк

stock market – фондовая биржа, рынок акций

to transact business (syn. to make a deal) – совершать сделку by remote control – при помощи дистанционного управления to go into details – вдаваться в подробности

a general definition – общее определение

a shorthand expression – краткое, рабочее выражение (определение) households' decisions – решения домохозяйств

to reconcile – приводить в соответствие, согласовывать by adjustment of prices – посредством корректировки цен to demand – требовать

given (syn. taking into account, consideration) – при условии, что..., учитывая limited resources – ограниченные ресурсы

to satisfy one's appetite – удовлетворять аппетит

to answer the question in favour of smb else – решать вопрос в пользу кого-либо другого

the seller's viewpoint – точка зрения продавца the cafe owner – владелец кафе

the rent – арендная плата

to switch to luxury lunches – переключиться на дорогие обеды rich executives – состоятельные служащие

behind the counter – за прилавком suitable – подходящий

to suit – подходить

part-time job (ant. full-time job) – работа с неполной занятостью a bit of money (ant. scads of money) – немного денег

it would hardly be worth working at all – вряд ли вообще имеет смысл работать

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conversely (syn. on the opposite, on the contrary) – наоборот, напротив unskilled job – неквалифицированная работа

to guide one's decision – влиять на чье-либо решение through the price system – через систему цен

to cover the cost – покрывать расходы to run the cafe – содержать кафе

to devote resources – выделять ресурсы

to guide resources into hamburger production – направить ресурсы на производство гамбургеров

cattle – крупный рогатый скот

to contract a disease – подхватить болезнь thereby – следовательно, таким образом

to reduce the economy's ability – снижать возможности экономики competition – состязание, конкуренция

to purchase scarce supplies – скупать дефицитные ресурсы to reallocate resources – перераспределять ресурсы

to reflect the scarcity – отражать дефицит to be involved in – быть задействованным в

the local labour market – локальный рынок труда

the local wholesale market – локальный оптовый рынок

the local market for rented buildings – локальный рынок аренды помещений precise descriptions of markets – точные описания рынков

to adopt a definition – принять определение

to adopt a child in a family – принять ребёнка в семью, усыновить to emphasize – подчеркнуть, выделить

arrangements through, which prices influence smth – структуры

(механизмы), посредством которых цены влияют на что-либо

Assignments

/. Suggest the Russian equivalents

a single living entity with a single conscious mind; a shorthand expression; to be reconciled by adjustment of smth; a suitable part-time job; to offer high wages; to guide smb's decision; to cover the cost of smth

II.Answer the questions

1.What's a financial intermediary? Name different financial intermediaries.

2.What's a deposit?

3.What's a bank liability? In what way are the bank liabilities part of the

money stock?

4.What's a commercial bank?

5.What's a clearing bank?

6.What's a clearing system? How does it work? Draw a scheme showing how the system works.

7.What's the role of the Bank of England?

8.What do assets include? Dwell on each item.

9.What's liquidity? Why is money itself the most liquid asset? What do liabilities include? Dwell on each item.