Клочкова Практическое пособие для аспирантов 2011

c)

1.All these activities generate greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change.

2.We face ethical as well as scientific problems and our work should contribute to welfare of future generations.

6. Write some sentences of your own using the following word combinations.

account for,

contribute to,

due to.

Read and enjoy

The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) attempted to create its own cyborg in 1961 in Operation Acoustic Kitty, in which a cat was cut open and fitted with an array of wires and a listening device that utilized its tail as an antenna. The project was disbanded as a failure in 1967 when the cat on its first mission (to eavesdrop on the Soviet compound in Washington, D.C.) was killed by a moving taxi sending more than five years of intensive training and $15 million down the drain.

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and that it is populated by relics from its hot beginning predictions that are all borne out by observations.

So why rock the boat? If the cosmological principle is so successful, why should we question it? The trouble is that recent astronomical observations have been producing some very strange results. Over the past decade astronomers have found that for a given redshift, distant supernova explosions look dimmer than expected. Redshift measures the amount that space has expanded. By measuring how much the light from distant supernovae has redshifted, cosmologists can then infer how much smaller the universe was at the time of the explosion as compared with its size today. The larger the redshift, the smaller the universe was when the supernova occurred and hence the more the universe has expanded between then and now.

2. Answer the questions.

1.Is the exact time of the action specified in the Present Perfect Tense?

2.Can we ask a question beginning with the word when in the Present Perfect?

3.Chose the correct time definition.

1.Physicists have struggled to marry quantum mechanics with gravity (for decades/in the twentieth century).

2.It is also significant to note that all of these improvements were implemented (in 1960/lately).

3.This has not been considered good (for many years/ at that time), because of the implications for program debugging.

4.Some things have been used (for a while| in the 90s) such as solar powered calculators.

5.(Recently/At the end of the 20th century) astronomers have found that for a given redshift, distant supernova explosions look dimmer than expected.

4.Analyze the use of the perfect forms in the following passages. Answer the grammar question

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1. Does the action in the Present Perfect refer to present time only or to both present and past?

А

The quantum world is a place where matter behaves radically different from the macroscopic world that we perceive. In the past century, we have reached a point where we have begun to understand how to exploit these properties to perform useful tasks. Quantum computers represent the future of computing, and will very likely overtake classical computers within this century. Their size and speed will revolutionize every aspect of technology in the same way classical computers have. This is a time where the field is still in its infancy, but we have taken the first crucial steps in moving from theory to reality in several qubit systems, and progress from here will come rapidly.

B

Increasingly powerful atom smashers have as yet found no evidence of any additional fundamental forces beyond these four. But they have revealed four more species of quarks (whimsically called charm, strange, top, and bottom.

The photon concept has led to momentous advances in experimental and theoretical physics, such as lasers, Bose-Einstein condensation, quantum field theory, and the probabilistic interpretation of quantum mechanics. It has been applied to photochemistry, high-resolution microscopy, and measurements of molecular distances. Recently, photons have been studied as elements of quantum computers and for sophisticated applications in optical communication such as quantum cryptography.

C

If you’ve ever been curious about something, if you’ve ever wanted to know what caused something to happen, then you’ve probably already asked a question that could launch a science investigation.

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5. Translate the sentences with parts in bold. Decide which tense, past or present, should be better used in Russian.

Present Perfect Simple

vs.

Present Perfect Continuous

1. Read the sentences paying attention to the parts in bold.

A

This theory has been generating excitement since it was proposed in January, and physicists met to discuss it at a meeting in November at the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics in Waterloo, Ontario. In particular, physicists have been checking if the model correctly describes the universe we see today.

B

Humans have been recording data on surfaces since the era of claytablet accounting systems. The printing press, photography, magnetic tape and compact discs (CDs) have each transformed data storage.

2. Explain the use of the Present Perfect Continuous and the Past Simple in the first sentence of A.

Note:

We usually think of the words:

•since

•for

as indicating the use of the Perfect tenses.

3. Translate the sentences.

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1.Physicists have struggled to marry quantum mechanics with gravity for decades.

2.What is interesting, and important, is that this issue continued to dominate design decisions for many years.

3.The imposing rings brought fame to this fascinating planet, and puzzled observers for centuries.

4.This has not been considered good form for many years, because of the implications for program debugging and the desire for reentrant code in some situations.

5.The trouble is that recent astronomical observations have been producing some very strange results.

6.Over the past decade astronomers have found that for a given redshift, distant supernova explosions look dimmer than expected.

7.Redshift measures the amount that space has expanded.

Present Perfect vs. Past Perfect

1. Study and translate the examples.

А

1.By the late 1960s, the resolving power of these machines had increased enormously, allowing physicists to reveal another layer of matter's substructure.

2.By the late 1800s, scientists had realized that substances such as oxygen and carbon did in fact have a smallest recognizable constituent, which (taking their cue from Democritus) they christened atoms.

3.By the mid-1980s, a central prediction of this proposed electroweak theory had been confirmed by the accelerator at the European Laboratory for Particle Physics (CERN) in Geneva, Switzerland.

B

1.It was obvious that industry had been instrumental in helping to build large devices, such as the JET tokamak at Abingdon in the UK,

2.Less obvious was how industry itself had benefited from the relationship

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3.The scientists screened more than 520.000 genes to compare the genetic variations found among smokers who had successfully given up with genetic variations among smokers who had tried to quit but failed.

4.We found that at least 62 of the genes that we had previously identified as playing roles in dependence to other drugs also contribute to nicotine dependence,

5.In many places it took a long time to overcome the non-rational customary systems of weights and measurements which had been used for centuries.

6.In the first instants of the big bang, after quarks had united in groups of three to form protons and neutrons, collectively called baryons, groups of four protons were then able to fuse together and become helium 4 nuclei.

7.When we first proposed those experiments more than 25 years ago, I had expected that within a decade we would have the answer.

8.After a generation of anticipation, when the physics community heard rumors that the CDMS experiment had detected something, we tuned in to the online announcement as if it were a Beatles reunion concert.

Future Perfect

1. Read the sentences and explain the use of the tense.

1.Within forty minutes of the sun shining on the earth, the sun will have given off as much energy as the entire world population will use in a year.

2.We still believe that the answer will have been found by the end of the century.

3.The new telescope will have been constructed by that time.

Perfect forms

1. Read the examples.

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Perfect Infinitive

to have + Ved\V3

One start-up company claims to have developed a cheaper and more energy-efficient approach that eschews digital processing.

Perfect Participle

Having + Ved\V3

He has a background in electronic engineering and in politics, having been Italy’s undersecretary for research.

2. Answer the questions.

1.Do the actions expressed by the perfect forms take place at the same time as the actions of the predicate?

2.Which of them took place earlier?

3.Work out the rule for use of the Perfect Infinitive

and the Perfect Participle.

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Part II

Practice

1. Translate the sentences

1.The standard model utilizes twenty or so numbers that have been established through decades of fastidious research.

2.Animal studies have shown that some nanoparticles, if inhaled or ingested, can harm the lungs and also cross the blood-brain barrier,

which protects the brain from toxins in the bloodstream.

3.We have come this far on the basis of enhancements to the existing architectures and their implementation.

4.This research marks the first time we’ve been able to identify genes involved in the ability to quit smoking.

5.The infinities that plague other theories of quantum gravity have been tamed, and the theory spits out a well-behaved graviton.

6.The printing press, photography, magnetic tape and compact discs (CDs) have each transformed data storage.

7.We've been heading down a road of using digital logic more and

more.

10.The NASA defines a fact as "an observation that has been repeatedly confirmed and for all practical purposes is accepted as 'true.'"

11.The trouble is that recent astronomical observations have been producing some very strange results.

12.The printing press, photography. magnetic tape and compact discs (CDs) have each transformed data storage.

2. Translate into English

1.

a)В 2009 году мы провели эксперимент.

b)Мы проводим эксперименты с 2009 года.

c)Мы провели серию экспериментов.

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2.

a)Я написал первую статью, когда я был студентом. (…when I was a student)

b)Я пишу статьи со студенческих лет. (… since I was a student)

c)За время учебы в институте я написал 4 статьи. (During my under-graduate course…)

3.

a)В прошлом году мы получили первые результаты.

b)Мы не получали достоверных результатов в течение 2 меся-

цев.

c)Наконец мы получили нужные результаты.

Writing a paper

1. Write the beginning of a paper (in the Present Perfect).

Chose one of the two possible variants:

We have found a new way to produce this material. or

A new way to produce this material has been found.

а) вы разработали новый метод производства микросхем; б) вы сконструировали новый прибор; в) вы открыли /исследовали новое явление;

г) сообщите о новом достижение в конкретной научной облас-

ти.

2. Write 5–6 sentences dealing with the background of a research.

Use the following beginnings:

•For centuries/decades/many years scientists have…

•Scientists have always…

•It has long been believed that…

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