6. Forms of Helping Verbs

The table below shows the principal forms and uses of helping verbs, and explains the differences between primary and modal helping verbs:

Primary		Modal
do	(to make simple tenses, and questions and negatives)	can	could
be	(to make continuous tenses, and the passive voice)	may	might
have	(to make perfect tenses)	will	would
		shall	should
		must
		ought (to)
"Do", "be" and "have" as helping verbs have exactly the same forms as when they are main verbs (except that as helping verbs they are never used in infinitive forms).		Modal helping verbs are invariable. They always have the same form.
Primary helping verbs are followed by the main verb in a particular form: do + V1 (base verb) be + -ing (present participle) have + V3 (past participle)		"Ought" is followed by the main verb in infinitive form. Other modal helping verbs are followed by the main verb in its base form (V1). ought + to... (infinitive) other modals + V1 (base verb)
"Do", "be" and "have" can also function as main verbs.		Modal helping verbs cannot function as main verbs.

LECTURE 2: THE ENGLISH TENSE SYSTEM

In English, the concept of tense is very important. The category of tense is a verbal category that reflects the objective category of time. Many languages use tenses to talk about time. Other languages have no tenses, but of course they can still talk about time, using different methods.

So, we talk about time in English with tenses. But:

• we can also talk about time without using tenses (for example, going to is a special construction to talk about the future, it is not a tense)

• one tense does not always talk about one time.

  1. The Categories of a Verb.

Here are some of the terms used in discussing verbs and tenses:

1. Mood

indicative mood expresses a simple statement of fact, which can be positive (affirmative) or negative:

I like coffee.

I do not like coffee.

interrogative mood expresses a question:

Why do you like coffee?

imperative mood expresses a command:

Sit down!

subjunctive mood expresses what is imagined or wished or possible:

The President ordered that he attend the meeting.

2. Voice: the form of the verb may show whether the agent expressed by the subject is the doer of the action or the recipient of the action (John broke the vase - the vase was broken). The category of voice is realized through the opposition Active voice / Passive voice.

Voice shows the relationship of the subject to the action. In the active voice, the subject does the action (cats eat mice). In the passive voice, the subject receives the action (mice are eaten by cats). Among other things, we can use voice to help us change the focus of attention.

3. Aspect: the category of aspect is a linguistic representation of the objective category of Manner of Action. It is realized through the opposition Continuous / Non-Continuous (Progressive / Non-Progressive). The realization of the category of aspect is closely connected with the lexical meaning of verbs.

Aspect expresses a feature of the action related to time, such as completion or duration. Present simple and past simple tenses have no aspect, but if we wish we can stress with other tenses that:

• the action or state referred to by the verb is completed (and often still relevant):

I have emailed the report to Jane. ( now she has the report) (This is called perfective aspect, using perfect tenses.)

• the action or state referred to by the verb is in progress or continuing (that is, uncompleted):

We are eating. (This is called progressive aspect, using progressive/continuous tenses.)

4) Tense and Time: the essential characteristic of the category of tense is that it relates the time of the action, event or state of affairs referred to in the sentence to the time of the utterance (the time of the utterance being "now" or the present moment). The tense category is realized through the oppositions: Past / Present / Future.

It is important not to confuse the name of a verb tense with the way we use it to talk about time.

For example, a present tense does not always refer to present time:

I hope it rains tomorrow - "rains" is present simple, but it refers here to future time (tomorrow).

Or a past tense does not always refer to past time:

If I had some money now, I could buy it - "had" is past simple but it refers here to present time (now)