3. Functional styles of the English language

According to Galperin:

Functional Style is a system of interrelated language means serving a definite aim in communication. It is the coordination of the language means and stylistic devices which shapes the distinctive features of each style and not the language means or stylistic devices themselves. Each style, however, can be recognized by one or more leading features which are especially conspicuous.

For instance the use of special terminology is a lexical characteristic of the style of scientific prose, and one by which it can easily be recognized.

Classification of Functional Styles of the English Language

1. The Belles - Lettres Functional Style.

a) poetry;

b) emotive prose;

c) drama;

2. The Newspaper Functional Style.

a) brief news items;

b) advertisments and announcements;

c) headlines;

3. The Scientific Prose Style.

a) exact sciences;

b) humanitarian sciences;

c) popular- science prose;

4. Publicistic Functional Style,

a) oratory;

b) essays;

c) articles in newspapers and magazines;

5. The Official Documents Functional Style.

a) diplomatic documents;

b) business letters;

c) military documents;

d) legal documents

4. G.N. Leech’s classification Классификация средств выразительности по Личу Он считал, что для средств выразительности характерно отклонение от языковой нормы. В своей классификации он рассматривает парадигматические и синтагматические отклонения от нормы. Однако многие исследователи являлись противниками подобного подхода, поскольку, с их точки зрения, большинство стилистических приемов не выходит за пределы языковой нормы.

The classification is built on the principle of distinction between the normal and deviant features in the language of literature.

Paradigmatic deviations (отклонения от нормы)

• Paradigmatic items can be viewed vertically

• Paradigmatic figures give the writer a choice from equivalent items, which are contrasted to the normal range of choices.

e.g. Normal: inches/feet/yards + away; deviant: farmyard away

Syntagmatic deviations

• Syntagmatic items can be viewed horizontally.

• A syntagmatic chain of language units provides a choice of equivalents to be made at different points in this chain , but the author imposes the same kind of choice in the same place.

E.g. Instead of a sentence like “Robert turned over a hoop in a circle” we have the intentional redundancy of “r” in “Robert Rowley rolled a round roll round”

5. I.R. Galperin’s classification The classification suggested by Prof. Galperin is simply organised and very detailed. The subdivision of expressive means and stylistic devices based on the level-oriented approach:

1. Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices onomatopoeia (direct and indirect* 8 вопрос): ding-dong; silver bells... tinkle, tinkle; alliteration rhyme (full, incomplete, compound or broken, eye rhyme, internal rhyme. Also, stanza rhymes: couplets, triple, cross, framing); rhythm.

2. Lexical expressive means and stylistic devices There are three big subdivisions in this class of devices and they all deal with the semantic nature of a word or phrase. However the criteria of selection of means for each subdivision are different and manifest different semantic processes.

I. The principle of classification is the interaction of different types of a word's meanings: dictionary, contextual, derivative, nominal, and emotive. A.Means based on the interplay of dictionary and contextual meanings: metaphor metonymy irony B.Means based on the interaction of primary and derivative meanings: polysemy

zeugma (намеренное использование слова в предложении сразу в нескольких значениях) and pun (каламбур) C.The third group comprises means based on the opposition of logical and emotive meanings: interjections and exclamatory words:

epithet:

oxymoron: peopled desert, populous solitude, proud humility D.The fourth group is based on the interaction of logical and nominal meanings and includes:

antonomasia (троп, выражающийся в замене названия или имени указанием какой-нибудь существенной особенности предмета или отношения его к чему-либо) Mr. Facing-Both-Ways does not get very far in this world. (The Times) II. The principle for distinguishing the second big subdivision according to Galperin is entirely different from the first one and is based on the interaction between two lexical meanings simultaneously materialised in the context. This kind of interaction helps to call special attention to a certain feature of the object described. Here belong: simile: treacherous as a snake, faithful as a dog, slow as a tortoise.

periphrasis: a gentleman of the long robe (a lawyer); the fair sex. (women)

euphemism: In private I should call him a liar. In the Press you should use the words: 'Reckless disregard for truth'. (Galsworthy)

hyperbole: The earth was made for Dombey and Son to trade in and the sun and the moon were made to give them light. (Dickens) III. The third subdivision comprises stable word combinations in their interaction with the context: cliches: clockwork precision, crushing defeat, the whip and carrot policy.

proverbs and sayings: Come! he said, milk's spilt. (Galsworthy)

epigrams: A thing of beauty is a joy for ever. (Keats)

quotations: Ecclesiastes said, 'that all is vanity'. (Byron)

allusions: Shakespeare talks of the herald Mercury. (Byron)

decomposition of set phrases: You know which side the law's buttered. (Galsworthy)

3. Syntactical expressive means and stylistic devices Syntactical expressive means and stylistic devices are not paradigmatic but syntagmatic or structural means. In defining syntactical devices Galperin proceeds from the following thesis: the structural elements have their own independent meaning and this meaning may affect the lexical meaning. In doing so it may impart a special contextual meaning to some of the lexical units.

inversion (several types) detached constructions: She was lovely: all of her - delightful. (Dreiser) parallel constructions chiasmus (инверсия во второй половине фразы) repetition enumeration suspense