8.4. Stylistic Semasiology

Stylistic semasiology studies transference of lexical meaning of words or word combinations. Though not all the transformations but those which turn a word into an expressive device. For example, to land (to come from the ship ashore), in the 20^th c. – “to come from cosmic space” has no stylistic coloring. Similarly, board, crane, head. In these cases the transposition of meaning brings a new subject-logical meaning which can either coexist with already existing meaning or substitute it, e.g.: villain (rascal) meant “villiger” (Fr. village); cheer meant “face” (Fr. chere); queen meant any woman.

The act of substitution of the name of one object by the name of another one is called transference of meaning. This type of intended substitution results in the origin of a stylistic device or trope.

Lexical Stylistic Devices

I. Figures of quality	II. Figures of relations
1.Metaphoric group simile metaphor epithet personification	1. Identifying relations euphemism periphrasis
2. Metonymic group metonymy synechdoche	2. Contrast relations antithesis oxymoron zeugma pun irony
3. Mixed group allegory antonomasia	3. Non-equal relations hyperbole litotes meiosis climax anticlimax

Lexico-stylistic devices are subdivided according to their aim into figures of quality and figures of relations.

I. Figures of quality are: metaphoric group, metonymic group, and mixed group, or figures of combination.

1.Metaphoric group are tropes based on similarity (уподібнення). They are: simile, metaphor, epithet, personification.

Simile (from Lat. similis – “similar”) is a comparison of two objects according to their common feature to make one of them more picturesque. The words are connected by conj. as and like: as pure as snow, a raindrop like a crystal, fear like an abyss, it leaps like a living flame. Logical comparison does not become a simile, e.g.: She hated it as I did. Many similes became clichés: as fresh as a rose, as fat as a pig, as proud as a peacock, to drink like a fish, to blush like a peony. Traditional character of many clichés transforms them into phraseological units whose motivation is not clear: as dead as a door-nail, as thick as thieves. There are other structures of similes:

art not so unkind as man’s ingratitude (in negative form);

redder than a red rose (by comparative degree of an Adj);

With the quickness of a long cat, she climbed up into the nest. (attributive construction);

They avoided her as if she were an infectious decease. (as if, as though);

He reminded James of a hungry cat. (lexical indication).

Metaphor (from Gr. “transference”) is a transference of the name of one object to another: the machine sitting at a desk (about a man). Metaphor is a substitution of the direct name of the objects by the word in figurative meaning, it is a kind of identification (ототожнення): He is a mule. Metaphor is more expressive and emotional than simile. Many metaphors became clichйs: seeds of evil, a flight of imagination, to burn with desire; some of them enriched the vocabulary and phraseology of the English language: an apple of one’s eye, an arm of the chair, a leg of the table, so transforming them into denotative devices.

There are several classifications of metaphor, among them:

1) according to the pragmatic effect:

a) trite, or dead, metaphors are fixed in dictionaries and sound hackneyed: to prick up one’s ears, flood of tears;

b) genuine, or original, metaphors are created in speech as a result of imagination. They sound fresh and unexpected, e.g.: Some books are to be tasted, others swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested;

2) according to the degree of stylistic potential:

a) nominative metaphors do not render any stylistic information. They name new objects or phenomena of the reality. They are technical devices of nomination, when a new object is denoted by means of already existing words, e.g.: an arm of the chair, a leg of the table, a foot of the hill, a nose of the teapot;

b) cognitive metaphor is formed when an object obtains a quality typical to another object, e.g.: the day died; the idea came; the road leads; the sun rises / sets down; time flies;

c) imaginitive metaphor is occasional and individual. It is bright, picturesque, image-bearing, and poetic, e.g.: her eyes are deep pools of water; time was bleeding away;

3) according to the structure (complexity of image creating):

a) simple / elementary metaphor consists of a single word / word- combination expressing indiscrete notion, e.g.: The leaves were falling sorrowfully;

b) sustained / prolonged metaphor appears in the case when a metaphoric word stimulates metaphoric potential of other words in a sentence or paragraph, e.g.: About half way between West Egg and New York the motor road hastily joins the railroads and runs beside it for a mile, so as to shrink away from a certain desolate area of land.

Epithet [´epiθət] (from Gr. “appendix”) is a word or word-combination having expressive characteristics of an object. It is usually a dependant part of an attributive or adverbial word-combination: a silvery laugh.

Cf.: an iron table :: an iron will

[logical attribute] [epithet]

Structurally epithet may be:

• simple represented by an A + N – loud ocean;

• compound expressed by a compound A + N – heart-burning desire;

• phrasal represented by:

a) a nominal phrase (N + of + N) (inverted epithet): a doll of a baby, the shadow of a smile;

b) a prepositional phrase (prepositional attribute / sentence): wind-in-the-orchard style.

From semantic point of view epithet can be either associated or unassociated. Associated epithet points out a typical feature of the object which it describes, e.g.: if forest – than dark, if tears – than bitter. Unassociated epithet ascribes such qualities that are not inherent in the object, making the phrase original and expressive, e.g.: voiceless sands, blank face. Unassociated epithet may be called a “speech epithet” because it reveals creative potential of speech.

Personification is imparting characteristics, thoughts, and actions of a human being to inanimate objects or animals: Lie is a strange creature. English has no grammatical gender, so personification can be expressed by personal pronouns and capital letters, e.g.: The Night, like loving mother, lays her hand on my fevered head.

2. Metonymic group are tropes based on the principle of contiguity (суміжність) of two objects. Such transference of the name is observed in many cases, e.g., china – “фарфор” < China (“Китай”); iron – “праска” < iron (“залізо”). Here belong metonymy and synechdoche.

Metonymy (from Gr. metonymia – “renaming”) is transference of the name of one object to another on the basis of contiguity (nearness). The relations between the objects may be quite different. The most typical are:

a) the name of a symbol instead of a notion, e.g.: crown, throne instead of king’s power;

b) the name of an instrument instead of an action, e.g.: ear instead of to hear; voice instead of to speak; heart instead of to love;

c) result instead of the cause, e.g.: to take the death instead of to take the hook;

d) name of a characteristic feature instead of its bearer, e.g.: a hand instead of a worker, the press instead of journalists, a pair of boots instead of a soldier;

e) abstract nouns denoting emotions instead of a subject, e.g.: my love instead of the beloved person.

Synecdoche (from Gr. “taken in a bundle”) is a transference of the name of a part to the whole and vice versa.

a) a part instead of the whole: under the same roof (house), e.g.: What she wants is a helping hand;

b) the whole instead of its constituent: The hall applauded. (the people);

c) singular instead of plural.

3. Mixed group are tropes based both on metonymic and metaphoric transference. Here belong allegory and antonomasia.

Allegory (from Gr. allegoria – “інакомовлення”) is a kind of representation of abstract notions by means of concrete images. The simplest examples are proverbs: All is not gold that glitters (metaphoric allegory, i.e. likening of abstract notions to concrete objects and phenomena).

After two centuries of crusades the Crescent [the Moslem religion] defeated the Cross [Christianity] (metonymic allegory – the name of the object that symbolizes the idea is used for its expression).

Antonomasia [,əntənə´meiziə] (from Gr. “rеnаming”) is thе usage of a proper name as a common noun or vice versa: He is the Napoleon of crime (metaphoric antonomasia, Napoleon in the meaning of a strategic genius);

He sold two Van Dykes (metonymic antonomasia – the name of the artist is used for his works);

He knew each Mary in the village (each Mary in the meaning “every woman”); Jack and Jill (in the meaning “any ordinary man and woman”).

II. Figures of relations comprise: identifying relations, contrast relations, and non-equal relations.

1. Figures of identifying relations (відношення тотожності). Here belong euphemism and periphrasіs.

Euphemism (from Gr. “speaking politely”) are “decent” synonymic substitutes of impolite words. Euphemisms may have different causes:

a) superstition: deuce – devil;

b) social and moral taboos: Lord – God, bеar – Ǿ;

c) reasons of politeness and decency: intoxicated – drunk, unwise – stupid.

✓ Euphemism has its antipode called dysphemism, i.e., rough, rude, impolite words and word-combinations: to die = to kick the bucket.

Periphrasіs (“speak about”) is a description of the subject of speech instead of its name (usually consists of a word-combination and has a poetic or humorous coloring).

a) logical: means of destruction = weapons; a shiel-bearer = a soldier;

b) figurative: to tie the knot = to marry; the root of evil = money;

To periphrases also belong nicknames which are determined as familiar, humorous, sometimes pointed or cruel names given to people or places as replacements for or addition to proper names [OED online, 2011]. Nicknames are usually awarded to the recipient on the basis of a person’s name or various attributes. Such attributes can be:

• titles (person’s occupation, social standing, official title) – bones for a forensic scientist, sawbones for a surgeon, sparky for an electrician, legman for a journalist, bagman for a travelling agent, moneybag for a wealthy person, genius for a clever person, encyclopedia for a well-educated person;

• physical characteristics – fatso for a person who is overweight or extremely thin, beanpole or short fry for a person who is tall or short, ginger or bluey (Austr.) for a person with red hair, curley or cue ball for a person without hair, four-eyes for a person with glasses;

• personality or profession – motormouth / chatterbox / ratchet-jaw for a talkative person, nervous Nellie for a cautious person, sleepy for a tired demeanor, sad sack for a pessimist, The Bard for William Shakespeare, iron lady for Margaret Thatcher, The King of Pop for Michael Jackson.

Besides bearing the stylistic coloring, periphrasіs performs a cognitive function, i.e. it deepens our knowledge about the reality and clarifies the meaning of words.

2. Figures of contrast relations (відношення протилежності). Here belong antithesis, oxymoron, zeugma, pun, and irony.

Antithesis [æn´tiθisis] (from Gr. “contrast”) is a comparison of two different notions. There are two variants of antithesis:

a) two different words with opposite meanings denote one and the same object, e.g.: Hope for the best and prepare for the worst; the beginning of the end;

b) two different words with opposite meanings denote two different but logically connected objects: His fees were high; his lessons were light.

Oxymoron (from Gr. “witty-foolish”) is used in the case when an object obtains characteristics contrary to its nature, e.g.: hot snow, pleasantly ugly, horrible beauty, go-to-devil request. It is used to express semantic contradiction, as in Silence was louder than thunder; The street was damaged by improvements.

Zeugma (from Gr. “yoke”) consists of at least three constituents. The basic word (verb, noun) stands in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to a couple of adjacent words, e.g.: He got out of bed and low spirits.

Thus, the basic word get forms with the 1^st adjacent word a free word-combination, with the 2^nd adjacent word – a phraseological unit.

Pun (play of words) does not need a basic component. It is formed on different understanding of the same word by two speakers, e.g.: – Is your mother engaged? – Engaged? She’s married!

Irony (from Gr. “hidden mockery”) originates when a word acquires the meaning opposite to its primary meaning. Ironical good means bad, pleased – displeased. It is often accompanied by intonation, mimics, jestures in speech; inverted commas and cursive – in writing; also observed in ironic set phrases e.g.: head cook & bottle-washer, jack-of-all-trades.

3. Figures of non-equal relations based on objective speech inequality reflect the degree of intensity, quality or action that violates the real state of things.

Hyperbole (from Gr. “exaggeration”) – a word or word-combination exaggerating the degree of quality or intensity. It can be expressed by all notional parts of speech, e.g.: a thousand pardons, scared to death, He knows everybody.

Meiosis, opposite to hyperbole, is a deliberate diminution of the degree of quality or intensity. It underlines insignificance of such qualities of objects as their size, volume, shape, distance, time, e.g.: a drop of water, in a second.

Litotes (from Gr. “simplisity”), E. understatement, is a kind of meiosis but with negative particle “not” and a word with negative prefix or meaning. It creates a positive effect: not bad, not unkind. It makes statements and judgements delicate and diplomatic, e.g.: I didn’t dislike him.

Climax (from Gr. – “ladder”), E. gradation, is an arrangement of an utterance so that each subsequent component increases significance or emotional tension of the narration, e.g.: I am sorry, I am so sorry, I am extremly sorry.

Anticlimax (from Gr. “розрядка”) is an arrangement of an utterance so that each subsequent component decreases significance or emotional tension of the narration, e.g.: Early to rise and early to bed makes a male healthy, wealthy, and dead (J. Thurber)