Unit 19

Grammar: Emphatic Inversion

TEXT 19 A

Computers (Fundamentals)

Computers are devices which process input data to provide output data, but input information, which the computer is to process, centainly is far from “raw”, because in the typical case, the input information is itself the result of an extensive collection and processing operation. To get even one report from a computer requires the prior application of a great deal of intensive skilled human labour.

Given below are some fundamentals concerning computer operations.

Computers perform with great speed and accuracy many operations that up to now have traditionally been done only by human labour. Already they are showing themselves capable of playing games, translating languages and even “learning” from experience. Not only can computers be taught to prove theorems of geometry and logic, read handwritten letters and other manmade patterns, but they can write sonatas and poems.

This fact has led some writers to liken computers to ”brains”. But, perfect as modern computers are, they cannot be called “brains”, however, because most of the real brain-work goes into drawing up the orders so that the machine can carry them out. Automatic computers are not able to devise a way of solving a new problem even when given the data. Nor can computers do any data processing without being instructed. It is the human being that has to think out a way of solving the problem, and then instruct the computer how to solve the problem when given the data. The computer will do exactly what it has been asked to do.

The human operation of instructing the computer is called programming, and the resulting set of instruction is called a program or a routine. This programming activity is actually a combination of two other activities: the breaking down of a complete operation into a sequence of simple operations (such as adding, multiplying, comparing, writing, etc.) along with the modifying and writing up of the sequence of simple operations into a set of instructions that can cause the computer to do complex operations provided the input data are given.

Computers can “remember” and “recall” and virtually unlimited is the capacity of automatic computers to remember (that is, to store information). Associated with the capacity of remembering is the capacity of recalling – the larger the amount of information computers remember (store), the slower is the recall.

In operation all computers accept input symbols and produce output symbols. Because of this it is often helpful to think of a computer as a device for converting input information into output information. It must be remembered, however, that not until a program is prepared does a computer perform any conversion or transforming (that is, a data processing). To be more precise, not only is it necessary to specify in detailed form the instructions comprising a program, but the detailed instructions must be arranged in a logical sequence which involves listing the logical steps required by the input-to-output conversion. The instructions have to be made absolutely complete in every detail and yet expressed in terms the machine can ”understand”.

Computers are subject to failures, i. e. they do not completely avoid making errors. This lack of perfection is not exactly a disadvantage, however, because the proportion of error in the work of a computer is usually very much smaller than would be the case if the same amount and type of work were done in the same amount of time by any other means.

Now, in considering the capabilities of the computer it is necessary to emphasize that once prepared, a program can be reused any number of times. As far as the limitations are concerned, we may say that although the computer cannot completely avoid errors, it is much more error-free than are the available alternatives.

The electronic computer had more effect on the modern world than any other technological development the world has ever known, and its potential appears to be unlimited. Computers are used in science, education and space exploration. In fact, space exploration, as we know it today, would be literally impossible without the aid of the computer.

There is no doubt that computers will be used more and more in science and industry. Electronics is the basis of these machines. As the art of electronics – the basis of these machines – develops, so will the changes be felt throughout the whole field of computing.

Answer the questions:

1. What kind of devices are computers?

2. What can computers be taught?

3. What are advantages and disadvantages of computers?

4. What is programming? What is called a program?

5. What steps does programming activity include?

6. Are computers subject to failures? What can you say about the proportion of error in the work of a computer?

7. What is the role of the electronic computer in the modern world?

Exercises

1. Translate the hollowing words paying attention to the prefixes:

pre-war, pre-arrange, prehistoric, pre-human, preheat, post-war, post-graduate.

2. Translate the sentences paying attention to the words of the same root.

Extent(n), extend(v), extended(a), extensive(a), extensively(adv).

1. Infra-red radiation emitted by hot bodies extends from about 0.1 mm down to 7,000 A.

2. During the past year some success has been achieved in extending the range of spectrographic measurements into the soft X-ray region.

3. The evidence from observations of meteors appears to indicate that our atmosphere extends upward at least 500 miles.

4. Through experiments it has been determined that the maximum temperature at which a man can maintain efficiency for extended periods is 80˚ F.

5. Unfortunately, the period of visibility of a comet is generally too short to allow any extensive measurements.

6. These instruments are extensively used for alternating current measurements.

7. The extent of calculations involved in making Kepler’s discoveries are quite surprising.

8. Hershel’s (an astronomer of the 18th century) attempt to determine the extent of the Milky Way had largely failed.

9. The resistance varies to some extent with temperature.

10. Since all fluids possess viscosity at least to some extent, the analysis of most flow systems requires consideration of the various forces involved.

3. Translate the sentences paying attention to the adverb phrases. Along with

1. The equipment comprises a sensitive radio receiver along with a highly directional antenna system.

2. Along with a long list of possible attractive characteristics of reactors, there are, unfortunately, certain dangerous points.

By virtue of

3. Heat is the energy that a body possesses by virtue of the fact that its molecules are in motion.

4. The internal combustion engine is unlike a steam engine which works by virtue of the introduction of steam which has been raised externally in a boiler.

4. Translate the sentences paying attention to the meanings of the word “subject”.

subject (n)

subject-matter

to be subject to (smth.)

to subject to

1. In writing this book the width of the subject has prevented the details from being presented.

2. The book was concerned with the subject-matter of natural science and its applications.

3. An instrument which reads correctly at one frequency may be subject to considerable errors at other frequencies.

4. Physical phenomena occurring on the earth are subject to complex influences, partly of solar origin.

5. Certain static fluids are subjected to accelerations.

6. We can now liquefy all known gases by subjecting them to high pressures and cooling them by expansion.