andreeva_tia_nauchnyi_angliiskii_iazyk_vypusk_14_nauka
.pdfФЕДЕРАЛЬНОЕ АГЕНТСТВО ПО ОБРАЗОВАНИЮ УРАЛЬСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ им. А. М. ГОРЬКОГО
Настольная библиотека аспиранта
НАУЧНЫЙ АНГЛИЙСКИЙ язык
Практическое пособие
Выпуск 14
НАУКА
Екатеринбург Издательство Уральского университета
2006
Серия «Настольная библиотека аспиранта»
основана в 2000 г.
Автор-составитель Т. Я. Андреева
Утверждено кафедрой иностранных языков 7 сентября 2005 г.
От составителя
Данное практическое пособие, являясь продолжени ем серии "Настольная библиотека аспиранта", содержит тексты, объединенные, прямо или косвенно, понятием «наука».
Первая часть пособия (тексты 1-19) включает не большие по размеру тексты, содержащие наиболее уяз вимые для перевода грамматические явления, и служит их повторением.
Вторая часть пособия (тексты 20-51) предназначена для быстрого чтения текстов без словаря с извлечением общей информации.
Дальнейшая работа с текстом направлена на воспроиз ведение полученной информации, что достигается с помо щью различных заданий.
В приложении приводятся наиболее продуктивные упражнения, направленные на закрепление речевых уме ний и навыков с последующим выходом на профессио нальные темы.
Пособие предназначено как для аудиторной, так и для самостоятельной работы.
Рекомендуется аспирантам, магистрантам и молодым исследователям, желающим повысить языковой уровень.
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Part 1
Text 1
Material Research
Material Research is not new, but the interdisciplinary as pects of materials research now are receiving considerable em phasis. It has been only since chemists, physicists, me tallurgists, ceramicists, polymer chemists, and other scientists began studying the detailed structure and properties of materi als that the fundamental relationships underlying basic materi als phenomena have begun to be understood.
It was not until recently that it has become increasingly evident that the rapid exploitation of new discoveries and their incorporation into the technology depends largely on the com bined efforts of research scientists and engineers drawn from several different disciplines.
The overwhelming problems of today are forcing the disci plines to seek advice from one another.
Not only does the blending of various disciplines result in enhanced research, but modem materials systems themselves often are created from the integration of two or more materials. These systems do result in new materials having properties not previously available.
It is the lack of materials that are adequate to meet the needs imposed on them that many of the holding problems in our technological development stem from.
♦ Read and translate the text. Pay attention to order of words in sentences.
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Text 2
On the Identifiability o f Parameters
On the identifiability of parameters System identification has arisen in different areas of application where the system model is completely unspecified but one wants to predict the system response, to regulate the system, or to simulate the sys tem. The only data available are a sequence of known input and a sequence of noise corrupted output. The intermediate objective is to specify a model which agrees with the statistical data. To perform system identification requires three steps: structure de termination, parameter identification, and model verification. Be fore solving the parameter identification problem, one would ad dress the problem of identifiability of parameters. With an as sumed structure, is it ever possible to identify the unknown pa rameters by extracting information from deterministic input and stochastic output data? The capability of answering this question will facilitate the selection of an appropriate model structure. Clearly, one would not select a model structure whose parame ters cannot be identified. Thus the question of parameters iden tifiability is central in the procedures for system identification.
♦ Read and translate the text. Pay attention to attribute com binations ofwords.
Text 3
Arrivingfrom Outer Space
Suppose that we were space travellers, visiting the Earth from some distant planet. It would be difficult to detect much trace of the atmosphere until we were in the region of the lower part of the orbit of the first Sputnik, say between 200 and 300
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miles up. At that distance from the earth the pressure of the at mosphere, which measures the weight of the air above us, is less than one millionth of that on the ground. This means we would be moving in what is called a "vacuum" on earth, for at this level, pressure is lower than that which can be reached by the finest laboratory pumps.
Having passed through the stratosphere, we would enter the troposphere, or region of weather. Meteorologists are interested in the whole atmosphere, but especially in the troposphere, be cause it is only in this relatively thin layer that we find weather, that is, clouds, fogs, rain, hail and snow. In general the higher one goes in the atmosphere, the colder the air becomes. This seems odd at first, because by climbing up we are getting nearer the sun, from which we get all our heat. The explanation is that the rays of the sun are not very effective in heating air directly. Most of the energy in a sun beam passes through clear air with very little absorption. What happens is that the sun's rays heat the surface of the earth, both the ground and the sea, and it is from the warm surface of the earth that the atmosphere receives most of the energy which appears as wind, and causes weather generally.
♦ Read and translate the text. Pay attention to adjectives and pronouns.
Text 4
Technology - a Resource
We find ourselves today between a forest and an ocean - a forest of new knowledge and an ocean of need. We are gen erating more new knowledge in one year than we generated in a full decade less than half a life-span ago. In fact, if you look
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upon the last 50 000 years of man's existence in terms of life spans, the speed of our progress - the pace of change is readily apparent. Because 800 modem life-spans would bridge more than 50 000 years. But of those 800 people 650 would have spent their lives in caves or something worse; only the last 70 had any truly effective means of communicating with one an other; only the last six ever saw a printed word; only the last six had any real means of measuring heat and cold; only the last four could measure time with any precision; only the last two used an electric motor; and many of the items that make up our material world were developed within the life span of the 800th person.
♦ Read and translate the text. Pay attention to numerals.
Text 5
The Plan for Implementation
Planning for the implementation of research results should begin when the research itself begins; it should not wait until the results are obtained. Specifically, the technical abilities of those who will use the results and the facilities at their disposal should be taken into account in determining the form and na ture of the research results which should be sought. It would be foolish to expect a clerk to solve an equation requiring the cal culus of variations; a monograph or a table may be necessary. But a monograph or a table may be able to provide only very approximate solutions to equations. An approximation which is used, however, will produce better results than an exact solu tion which is ignored. In order to assure that the research re sults are carried out as intended, it is necessary to develop a detailed plan for their implementation. This need is generally
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acknowledged where the action ultimately to be taken is to be performed by a computer. In such a situation the researcher recognizes his responsibility for developing a program for the computer. What is not so well recognized is that almost as de tailed a program is required for human operators. It is neces sary to specify exactly who is to do what, when they are to do it, and how. The who and when can normally be shown on a flow chart which indicates the way that the relevant operations are to be conducted. The what requires detailed instructions in terms of operations that can be performed by the kinds of peo ple-involved.
♦ Read and translate the text. Pay attention to model verbs and equivalents.
Text 6
Voyages to the Moon
More than fifty years from now the wonders of the Cosmic Age unfolded before the eyes of mankind. Several expeditions already will have gone to Mars and Venus and exploratory voyages will have been extended as far as Jupiter and Saturn and their natural satellites.
Voyages to the Moon will have become commonplace. Not unlikely the exploratory work presently going on in Antarctica, the surface of the Moon will have been subdivided into spheres of interest by major powers, and much prospecting, surveying, and even a limited amount of actual mining operations of pre cious ores and minerals will be conducted.
At some particularly suitable spots on the Moon housing structures will have been established. They may be operated for
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the purpose of "attracting" more traffic of scientists and explor ers to man laboratories and observatories.
♦ Read and translate the text. Pay attention to the Future Perfect Tense.
Text 7
Science Men in America
Some fifteen years ago a group of science men formed in America. They were eminent scientists in many different fields, but they were united by a common interest in particular kind of problem. In a nutshell, this was the problem of control. The time was ripe for some new thinking on this topic. Particular manifestations of the control problem were arising at this time because of the Second World War. In fact, several rapidly de veloping lines of thought, originating in quite different spheres of activity, were coming together.
People were busy with the design of electronic control ma chinery of various kinds. Mathematicians were trying to help by discussing the behaviour of information inside these electri cal systems in terms of mathematics. Elsewhere, people were developing a theoretical interest in the way in which informa tion can be coded. They were trying to answer the question: how can we measure the content of information in a message, and how can this be expressed exactly? Statisticians, too, were beginning to discuss the flow of information in the animal body as the basis of physiological control. Biological scientists had also shown interest in problems of control, and in the way in formation behaves in the body of an animal. They were begin ning to make attempts to discuss such questions formally with the help of mathematics. Logicians, engineers, psychiatrists - all these and others were finding roads which led to the same
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basic topic: the notion of control itself. Gradually scientists be gan to realize, through the terrible barrier constituted by their different professional languages, that they were talking about the same thing.
♦ Read and translate the text. Pay attention to Indefinite, Continuous and Perfect Tenses.
Text 8
Research
Research that is directed toward the solution of problems can be divided into two major classes: evaluative and devel opmental. An evaluative problem is one in which the alterna tive courses of action are completely specified in advance and the solution consists of selecting the "best" of these. A devel opmental problem is concerned with the search for (and per haps construction or synthesis of) instruments which yield a course of action that is better than any available at the time.
In discussing the phases of research we shall consider each of the types of research that have been identified and explore their methodological differences and similarities. But the basis of these comparisons will be laid throughout by a detailed con sideration of evaluative problem solving.
As it will be seen in some detail, applied research has the advantage of being able to formulate criteria of its own effi ciency in terms of the objectives for which the problem is be ing investigated. Because of lack of specific objectives, in pure research such criteria cannot be formulated as explicitly. Con sequently, in pure research many implicit assumptions are made about the conditions under which its results will be ap plied. In applied research these assumptions are frequently
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