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1. Speak on different types of organizations and organizational structure. Demonstrate it on examples. Draft an optimal organizational structure for a retail company of your choice.

By structure, we mean the framework around which the group is organized. It's the operating manual that tells members how the organization is put together and how it works. More specifically, structure describes how members are accepted, how leadership is chosen, and how decisions are made.

Structure gives members clear guidelines for how to proceed. A clearly-established structure gives the group a means to maintain order and resolve disagreements.

Structure binds members together. It gives meaning and identity to the people who join the group, as well as to the group itself.

Structure in any organization is inevitable – an organization, by definition, implies a structure.

This means that you should think about structure from the beginning of your organization's life. As your group grows and changes, so should your thinking on the group's structure.

Regardless of what type of structure your organization decides upon, three elements will always be there. They are inherent in the very idea of an organizational structure. They are:

• Some kind of governance

• Rules by which the organization operates

• A distribution of work

The first element of structure is governance - some person or group has to make the decisions within the organization. 

Another important part of structure is having rules by which the organization operates. Many of these rules may be explicitly stated, while others may be implicit and unstated, though not necessarily any less powerful.

Inherent in any organizational structure also is a distribution of work. The distribution can be formal or informal, temporary or enduring, but every organization will have some type of division of labor.

2. Dwell on the basic characteristics and challenges of organizational communication (on the basis of “Office Space”).

Peter Gibbons, a disgruntled programmer at Initech, spends his days "staring at his desk" instead of actually working. His co-workers include Samir Nagheenanajar, who is annoyed by the fact that nobody can pronounce his last name correctly; Michael Bolton, who loathes having the same name as the famous singer, whom he hates; and Milton Waddams, a meek, fixated collator who constantly mumbles to himself. Milton had actually been laid off years earlier, though he was never informed and, due to a payroll computer glitch, continues to receive regular paychecks. All four are repeatedly mistreated by management, especially Initech's smarmy, callous vice president, Bill Lumbergh. The staff are further agitated by the arrival of two consultants, Bob Slydell and Bob Porter, who are brought in to help the company through downsizing and outsourcing.

Peter's girlfriend Anne convinces him to attend an 'occupational hypnotherapy' session, but the therapist, Dr. Swanson, dies of a heart attack right after hypnotizing Peter. The newly relaxed Peter wakes up the next morning and ignores continued calls from Anne (who angrily leaves him and admits she's been cheating, confirming his friends' suspicions) and Lumbergh (who was expecting Peter to work over the weekend). The following work day, Peter decides to skip work and asks Joanna, a waitress at Chotchkie's (a parody of T.G.I. Friday's), out to lunch. Joanna shares Peter's loathing of idiotic management and love of the television program Kung Fu.

When Peter finally shows up at work, he disregards Initech's dress code, takes Lumbergh's reserved parking spot, and refuses to follow Lumbergh's directions. He also removes items that annoy him, such as a door handle that repeatedly shocked him and a cubicle wall that blocks his view out the window. The consultants, however, decide to promote him because of the positive impression he makes on them with his bluntness about the office's problems. Peter then learns that Michael and Samir's jobs will be eliminated, and the trio decide to get even by infecting Initech's accounting system with a computer virus designed to divert fractions of pennies into a bank account they control. They believe the scheme will succeed because the amounts are too small for Initech to notice, while over time they will receive a substantial amount of money. On Michael and Samir's last day at Initech, Peter takes one last item: a frequently-malfunctioning printer, which the three smash to pieces in a field.

To his horror, Peter discovers that a bug caused the virus to steal over $300,000 in the first few days, a far more conspicuous loss to Initech. Haunted by the result, he admits to Joanna—who has finally worked up the courage to stand up to her boss and quit Chotchkie's—that the scheme was a bad idea and that he plans to accept the blame for the crime. He writes a letter confessing everything, then slips an envelope containing the letter and the money (in unsigned traveler's checks) under the door of Lumbergh's office late at night. The next morning, Milton—having been deprived of his cherished red Swingline stapler by Lumbergh, forced to move to the cockroach-infested basement, and having had his paychecks finally cut off—enters Lumbergh's office to reclaim his stapler.

Fully expecting to be arrested upon arriving at work, Peter instead finds that his problem has solved itself: the Initech building is fully engulfed in flames, implying that Milton has finally made good on his quiet threats to destroy the company for slighting him and that all evidence of the missing money was destroyed. Peter finally finds a job that he likes: doing construction work with his next-door neighbor, Lawrence. As the two of them are cleaning up debris from the fire, Lawrence discovers Milton's stapler. Peter takes it, saying he thinks he knows someone who might want it, implying that "someone" is Milton. Samir and Michael drop by and offer to recommend Peter for a job at Initech's rival, Initrode, where they have secured new jobs. Peter declines, content with his new job and life. Meanwhile, Milton lounges on the beach at a fancy Mexican resort, but he is still not happy; he is heard mumbling complaints about his beverage and threatening to take his traveler's checks (which he found in Lumbergh's office) to a competitor.

3. Speak on the peculiarities of corporate value system. Demonstrate the difference in ethical standards of various organizations, providing examples. Draft a value statement for any company of your choice.

Milton Rokeach (1973) defined a value system as "an enduring organization of beliefs concerning preferable modes of conduct or end-states of existence along a continuum of relative importance." Based on the Rokeach definition, Leonard Goodstein (1983) contended that "in any organization, the members generally have a set of beliefs about what is appropriate and inappropriate organizational behavior. Furthermore, these beliefs can be ordered in importance in a reliable fashion by the members of the organization." In other words, organizational value systems help organizational members to understand what the organization holds as important and how the unique sense of the place should influence their personal decision making and behavior.

Values are part of the shared realities generated through organizational com­munication. These shared values are reflected in organizational myths, stories, mission statements, physical surroundings, slogans, and decision making, for ex­ample. Indeed, it is fair to say that organizational values are transmitted, main­tained, and changed through organizational communication processes.

KÄRCHER

For the family-owned company Kärcher, sustainable management is an essential part of its corporate culture. Kärcher states the following principles:

Human rights and compliance with the laws

We respect human rights and in all countries the respective laws, values, standards and social systems.

Discrimination

We do not tolerate any kind of discrimination with regard to sex, age, race, nationality, disability, social origin and sexual orientation. We support equal opportunity.

Child work

We condemn child work and observe the legal regulations for the minimum age of employees.

Forced labour and punishment

We condemn forced labour and the physical punishment, threats and harassment of employees.

Corruption

We condemn any kind of corruption.

Freedom of association

We recognise the right of our employees to freedom of association. We work together on a basis of trust with employee representatives.

Fair wages and working hours

Wages and social contributions comply with the minimum statutory requirements applicable locally.

Health and safety

We protect our employees against hazards at the workplace and support health promoting measures.

Environmental protection

We ensure that our products, services and processes are environmentally-friendly. Wherever we are active, we comply with environmental requirements and use natural resources responsibly.

4. Speak on ethical considerations in organizational communication; theories applicable to ethical communication, tools for evaluating ethical communication behaviour. Give your recommendations on the criteria to be used in creating value systems in an organization of your choice.

Making Ethical Decisions

Three general decision-making frameworks can be identified for their approaches to our subject of ethics: utilitarian theory, theory of rights, and theory of justice. First, utilitarian theory evaluates behavior based on outcomes or consequences for those involved. Second, the theory of rights emphasizes individuals' entitlements or privileges as members of a society. Finally, a theory of justice emphasizes balance or equity. These three perspectives are mostly a product of Western cultural values. It is important to note, especially in light of global environments, other cultures may have different values that define differently morally acceptable actions. Thus, ethics is not a concrete science. Even in our own culture, solutions to moral dilem­mas are not always clear. Indeed the three perspectives that follow are potentially contradictory with one another.

Utilitarian Theory Utilitarian theory rests on the principle that our actions are judged by their consequences or outcomes. The statement "The ends justify the means" is often used to describe this philosophical viewpoint. Utilitarianism charges decision makers with determining the various possible outcomes in a given situation and then determining which will benefit the greatest number of individuals.

Theory of Rights The theory of moral rights asserts that all individuals have cer­tain inalienable rights that are defined by society and that these rights must be re­spected in all situations, including the workplace. The most familiar rights for Americans are those found in the U.S.A. Constitution's Bill of Rights. Cavanagh, Moberg, and Velasquez (1990) suggested the following as commonly accepted basic moral rights:

1. The right of free consent. Individuals have the right to be treated only as they freely consent to be treated.

2. The right to privacy. Individuals have a right to a private life outside the purview of the public.

3. The right to freedom of conscience. Individuals have the right to refuse to do anything that goes against their moral or religious beliefs.

4. The right of free speech. Individuals have the right to speak freely as long as what they say does not violate others' rights. (The concept of others' tights re­mains subject to debate and various legal interpretations.)

5. The right to due process. Individuals have a right to a fair and impartial heat­ing to avoid a violation of their rights.

This theory is fairly easy to use as a guideline if individuals agree that we all have the same entitlements. Unlike utilitarian theory, which has to weigh the effects of the decision for the majority, the theory of rights is more clear-cut. That is, if a right is being violated, the action is not ethical. For example, because the use of e-mail and the Internet has increased exponentially, there have been instances when employers have monitored employees' messages unbeknownst to employees. Court cases have upheld the monitoring of employee e-mail and Internet use, but the practice raises moral questions based partly on the theory of rights. Is it ethical to monitor employees' e-mail, texting, and Internet use according to the theory of rights? Most would answer that it is. Although individuals have a right to privacy, that right does not extend to their time on the job. Although monitoring one's correspondence without one's knowledge may lower trust levels, it is not unethical. An organization might even jus­tify the practice using utilitarian theory by concluding that it would benefit the organ­ization (the greatest number) to know what is being communicated by employees.

Theory of Justice. The theory of justice requires that all decision makers be guided by fairness, impartiality, and equity if their actions are to be considered ethical. Thus, treatment of individuals should not be based on arbitrary characteristics and any differential treatment should be defendable. Treatment also should be consistent and impartially enforced. For example, most organizations have experienced some form of employee reduction or downsizing. One of the ethical issues employer faces is deciding which departments or individuals will be let go. Do уou make the decision based on performance or seniority?

The theory of justice would consider that whatever direction you take, you must be fair, equitable, and impartial. If organizations decide they will base layoffs on seniority, they must first develop a strong reason for their decision. Then, that criterion must be used in all termination decisions. Finally, any subsequent decisions that affect those who are laid off must apply equally to all (e.g., severance packages). The theory of justice has gained in importance with the advent of issues of corporate social responsibility, sustainability, and a host of highly visible ethical and legal abuses.

First we will give the ethical guidelines definition. Then we will familiarize you with rules typical for all travel agencies. And finally we will show you the ethical rules within our organization.

Ethical guidelines are principles that when followed, promote values such as trust, good behavior, fairness, and/or kindness.

Travel agencies’ rules.

• We must have understanding and dissemination of universal ethical values like tolerance and respect for the diversity of religious and moral beliefs

• We must conduct tourism activities in harmony with the traditions of the host regions and countries and with respect for their law, customs and traditions

• When traveling, tourists and visitors should not tolerate any criminal acts or acts that may be considered as a criminal by the law of the visited country

• All the participants of the tourist process must safeguard the natural environment and resources.

Ethical rules within our organization

• Our obligation is to provide objective and honest information on the places of destination and on the conditions of travel. We should the clarity of contracts, both in terms of the nature, cost and quality of services.

• We should be concerned about safety, accident prevention, health protection and food hygiene ['haɪʤiːn] for persons applying for our services. We must provide appropriate insurance and assistance.

• Our specialists have the right for an appropriate initial education, professional development and social protection.

• We offer our employees the possibility of sharing of experience with the specialists from different countries.

• We respect the rights and interests of our employees and show trust that allows us to delegate authority and responsibility for decisions and ways of their implementation.

• We show our honesty in relationships and in providing of any information necessary for our work.

• We take care of our personal orderliness: not to be late to work and leave it only after working hours.

• We must comply with the standards of service etiquette ['etɪket], no matter how we communicate - directly, by phone or in writing.

• We must show respect and consideration for colleagues, regardless of their official position.

• We must respect the religious, political and cultural freedom of our colleagues.

• The leaders should treat subordinates with respect, clearly define the scope of their duties and responsibilities.