Language figures: metaphor, metonymy, simile, taboo, euphemism, dysphemism, understatement, hyperbole, synecdoche, litotes. Loan words.

Figurative language - an expressive use of language when words are used in a non-literal way to suggest illuminating comparisons and resemblances (figures of speech). It has a local, restricted effect in which special meaning is extracted from the linking of two unlike words.

Metaphor - a figurative expression in which one notion is described in terms usually associated with another. The linkage between the two words is implicit. (launch an idea)

Metonymy - a semantic change where an attribute is used for the whole (crown=king).

Přenesení pojmenování na skutečnost, která je s původní skutečností spjata nějakou prostorovou, časovou, kvalitativní, funkční, příčinnou a jinou souvislostí či soumezností. Na rozdíl od metafory si metonymie v podstatě vždy uchovává primární význam přenášeného pojmenování, pouze ho zasouvá do pozadí. Je představitelná jako jistý druh elipsy (vypil sklenici). Metonymie aktuální (Dvacet podvlékaček podívalo se nahoru a řeklo...), uzuální (nosí stříbrnou lišku); kontextová (číst Haška, hrát Dvořáka, Praha rozhodla).

Simile - a figurative expression that makes an explicit comparison (as tall as a tower).

Taboo - expressions which people avoid using in polite society because they believe them harmful or feel them embarrassing or offensive.

Euphemism – a figure of speech in which an unpleasant, offensive, harsh or blunt word or expression is avoided and a vague or indirect expression or one that is milder is used instead (pass away/on for die, little girls´room for lavatory or toilet; developing countries for backward countries; single-parent family; previously owned, gosh for God).

Dysphemism – the substitution of a derogatory or unpleasant term for a pleasant or neutral one and a term so used (pushing up daisies, sniff it).

Understatement – (an unduly) restrained statement or expression, representing the facts as being less than is actually the case.

Hyperbole – a figure of speech consisting in emphatically exaggerated or extravagant statement, used to express strong feeling or produce a strong impression, not meant to be taken literally (There were millions of people in the street. The heat drives me crazy. smashing new dress; skyscraper).

Synecdoche - a figure of speech in which the part is used for the whole or the whole is used for the part (wheels for car, creatures for cats).

Litotes - a figure of speech where something is understated, often ironically. E.g. an affirmative is expressed by the negative of the contrary. (No small amount). (Not bad, meaning good).

Irony - language that expresses a meaning other than that literally conveyed by the words. (That´s marvellous, said of poor work)

Paradox - an apparent contradiction that contains a truth. A situation, fact or statement which seems impossible and/or difficult to understand because it contains two opposite facts or characteristics.