Consciousness and Learning: What It Means to Have an Insight

Although classical and operant conditioning play a large part in both animal and

human learning, it is generally recognized by behavioral scientists that these two

related processes give an insufficient account of the learning process, particularly

in human beings. Consequently, it is important to identify at least four additional

aspects of learning. These are (1) observational learning, (2) latent learning, (3)

insight learning, and (4) learning to learn.

Observational learning takes place when an individual acquires behavior

by watching the behavior of a second individual. Albert Bandura, a principal

researcher associated with observational learning, identified important features

of this particular process. The second individual is a model, and either intentionally

or unintentionally demonstrates behavior. If the observer identifies with

the model and gains imaginary satisfaction from the model’s behavior, then

this is vicarious reinforcement. Vicarious reinforcement is characterized by

imagined gratification. Psychologically, it acts as a substitute for the real thing.

Let’s say that Jonathan admires a particular tennis star. When the star wins an

important tournament, Jonathan is ecstatic. This emotional state is a vicarious

reinforcer.

It should be noted that the concept of watching a model is very general. Reading

a mystery novel and identifying with the detective is a kind of observational

behavior. The thrills associated with the hero’s adventures are vicarious thrills.

Social learning theory, associated with Bandura’s research, states that much

of our behavior in reference to other people is acquired through observational

learning. Let’s say that Carol is a fifteen-year-old high school student. She is on

the fringe of a group of adolescent females who admire a charismatic eighteenyear-

old named Dominique. Dominique smokes, uses obscenities, and brags

about her sexual exploits. Carol observes Dominique and obtains a lot of vicarious

reinforcement from Dominique’s behavior. If Carol begins to imitate

Dominique’s behavior, then social learning has taken place.

Both prosocial behavior and antisocial behavior can be acquired through

observational learning. Prosocial behavior is behavior that contributes to the

long-run goals of a traditional reference group such as the family or the population

of the nation. If an individual admires one or both parents, then the parents may be taken as role models. Many adolescents and young adults acquire attitudes and personal habits that resemble those of their parents. If one is patriotic and ready to defend one’s nation during time of war, it is quite likely that the individual is taking important historical figures such as presidents and generals as role models.

Antisocial behavior is behavior that has an adverse impact on the long-run

goals of a traditional reference group. From the point of view of Carol’s parents,

If Carol begins to act like Dominique, then Carol’s behavior is antisocial.

Latent learning is a second kind of learning in which consciousness

appears to play a large role. Pioneer research on latent learning is associated with

experiments conducted by the University of California psychologist Edward C.

Tolman and his associates. Let’s say that a rat is allowed to explore a maze without

reinforcement. It seems to wander through the maze without any particular

pattern of behavior. It is probably responding to its own curiosity drive, but no

particular learning appears to be taking place. Let’s say that after ten such opportunities, reinforcement in the form of food in a goal box is introduced. The rat,