6.4 Assimilation of borrowings

Assimilation of a loan word is a partial or total conformation to the phonetical, grammatical and morphological standards of the target language and its semantic system.

The assimilation degree depends on the length of the period during which the word has been used in the target language; upon its importance for communication purposes and its frequency.

Grammatical adaptation consists in a complete change of the former paradigm of the borrowed word (i. e. system of the grammatical forms peculiar to it as a part of speech). Semantic adaptation is adjustment to the system of meanings of the vocabulary.

Completely assimilated loan words are found in all layers of older borrowings, follow all morphological, phonetical and orthographic standards and take an active part in word formation.

e.g. Latin: street, wall, wine, cheese

Scandinavian: husband, fellow, gate, take, ill, root, wing, wrong

French: table, face, figure, chair, matter, finish

Partially assimilated loan words:

• semantically: e.g. sombrero, toreador rickshaw, sherbet

• grammatically: e.g. crisis – crises, datum – data

• phonetically: e.g. cartoon, police, machine

• graphically: e.g. buffet, coup, debris

Unassimilated loan words or barbarisms are not assimilated in any way. There are corresponding English equivalents,

e.g. Italian addio – good-bye

Latin ad libitum – at pleasure

It is often the case that a word is borrowed by several languages. Such international words usually convey concepts which are significant in the field of communication,

e.g. philosophy, mathematics, physics, music, theatre, drama, tragedy, comedy, politics, policy, revolution, progress, democracy, atomic, antibiotic, radio, television, sputnik; sports terms, fruits and foodstuffs imported from exotic countries.

6.5 Etymological doublets

The words shirt and skirt etymologically descend from the same root. Shirt is a native word, and skirt (as the initial sk suggests) is a Scandinavian borrowing. Their phonemic shape is different, and yet there is a certain resemblance which reflects their common origin. Their meanings are also different but easily associated: they both denote articles of clothing.

Words that originated from the same etymological source, but differ in phonemic shape and in meaning are called etymological doublets. They may enter the vocabulary by different routes. Some of these pairs, consist of a native word and a borrowed word: shrew, n. (E.) — screw, n. (Sc). Others are represented by two borrowings from different languages which are historically descended from the same root:

e.g. senior (Lat.) – sir (Fr.),

canal (Lat ) – channel (Fr.),

captain (Lat.) – chieftan (Fr.)( the leader of a people or clan)

Still others were borrowed from the same language twice, but in different periods:

e.g. corpse [kɔ:ps] a dead body, esp. of a human being (Norm. Fr.)

corps [kɔ:] is a main subdivision of an armed force in the field, consisting of two or more divisions (Par. Fr.)

travel (Norm. Fr.) – travail (painful or laborious effort) (Par.Fr.)

cavalry (in the past) soldiers who fought on horseback (Norm. Fr.) – chivalry is the medieval knightly system with its religious, moral, and social code (Par. Fr.)

gaol variant spelling of jail (Norm. Fr.) – jail (Par. Fr.)

Etymological triplets are groups of three words of common root. They occur rarely.

e.g. hospital university dormitory (Lat.)

hostel an establishment which provides inexpensive food and lodging (Norm. Fr.)

hotel (Par.Fr.)

to capture (Lat.) – to catch (Norm. Fr.) – to chase (Par. Fr.) (pursue in order to catch or catch up with)

A doublet may also consist of a shortened word, from which it was derived,

e.g. history – story;

fantasy – fancy (фантазія, уява , уявлюваний, уявний образ; ілюзія, мрія примха, каприз);

fanatic – fan;

defense – fence;

courtesy (ввічливість, чемність, люб'язність) – curtsy (реверанс, присідання);

shadow – shade (тінь; півморок, присмерк; прохолода, холодок).