Unit 12

Грамматика: Герундий. Его формы и значение. Признаки, отличающие герундий от причастия 1. Герундий в функции подлежащего, части сказуемого, дополнения, левого и правого определения, обстоятельства. Особенности перевода некоторых предлогов перед герундием. Способы перевода герундия в различных функциях. Текст: Newton’s three laws of motion

Newton's three laws of motion

Isaak Newton was born in 1642 in England. Isaak attended¹ a country school until he was eleven. At the age of twelve he was sent to a town school, seven miles away from his home, to con­tinue his education. The boy made good progress² and worked hard for his goal – Cambridge. His application³ for entrance into Cambridge Uni­versity was accepted⁴ in 1661.

Soon his tutors found that he showed unusual knowledge of subjects that were to form the topics of further lectures. He had mastered⁵ those subjects independently because he was interested in them. The result was that he was soon excused from attending certain courses, which pro­vided him with more time for making experiments.

Newton's interests were centred on mathematics and mechanics and on studying different phenomena of Nature. Newton was forty-two years old, however, when he started putting down on paper his ideas which were the result of more than twenty years of scientific thinking. It is indeed surprising that it took Newton only eighteen months to pro­duce his wonderful work — the Principia, that was later on called the greatest product of a single human mind.

Of the many things that Newton accomplished⁶ in the Principia, the major ones, namely the three laws of mechanics, are briefly touched upon below.

First Law. Every body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line except in so far as it may be compelled by impressed force to change that state.

The first law introduces the idea of inertia and is often called the low of inertia. Inertia is defined⁷ as that property by virtue of which a body resists-changes, in motion.

Suppose that you are riding in a bus going 20 miles per hour. The bus stops suddenly. It is no longer doing 20 miles per hour. But you are. Unless you seize a handrail, you will keep moving due to your being a "body" in motion. Your having experienced a thrust is a demonstra­tion of inertia.

On the Earth's surface, however, it is difficult to demonstrate⁸ fully the first law of motion because air-resistance⁹ and the tremendous forces of gravity prevent an object from travelling at constant speed in a straight line. But one of the first proofs of the first law is found in the movement of the heavenly bodies which meet practically no friction in their travelling through space.

Modern artificial satellites obey Newton's first law. Their being set on proper orbits, completely free from the Earth's atmosphere and air friction, is of great importance. It is known that some early satellites were burned up on account of their having been set on wrong orbits. Successful flights of modern spaceships have proved the validity of Newton's first law in actual practice.

Second Law. Any change in motion of a body is in proportion to the force pressing on it and takes place in the direction of the straight line in which the pressing force acts.

The second law gives a valuable means for measuring forces. The mathematical relationships provided by the second law allow scientists to measure the force of gravitation at any point of the Earth's surface. The ability of making such calculations¹⁰ is of great value in planning the orbit of an artificial satellite. The availability of electronic computers provides a reliable means for making the necessary calculations with great speed and accuracy.

Third Law. For every action exerted¹¹ on a body, there is an equal and opposite reaction¹². Another way of stating the third law is this: "Whenever one body exerts a force on another, the second body exerts an equal and opposite force on the first body."

For example, when you press a stone with your finger, your finger is also pressed back by the stone.

When you fire a rifle, the forward thrust of the bullet is matched¹³ by a backward thrust or "kick" against your shoulder.

Nowhere else today, perhaps, is Newton's third law of motion of such great importance as in the field of jet propulsion and rocket flights.

In the case of jet-propelled plane's flying the thrust of gases issuing from the jet engine reacts against the engine itself and causes a forward thrust. It is not true, as it was thought before, that the rearward gases push against the air; if it were so, Newton's third law would not be true. But jet engines are air-breathers and the hot gases burned in them feed on the air supply¹⁴ they take from the atmosphere.

Rockets, on the other hand, carry their fuel¹⁵ along with them and are able of travelling in outer space where there is no air and, hence, no air resistance. In the near-perfect vacuum of space Newton's third law operates ideally. The powerful thrust inside the rocket's engine results in an equal and opposite thrust forward of the rocket itself because there is no air-friction in outer space. Hence, the rockets' travelling with fantastic speeds of thousands of miles per hour is possible.

Both in the world of science and in our own daily lives Newton's three brief statements of motion are of great importance. In his three laws of motion Newton established¹⁶ the framework for the general study of motion in terms of mass and force.

The greatest achievements¹⁷ of science and engineering today are based¹⁸ on Newton's laws of motion, which are always and everywhere true.

Примечания к тексту:

are briefly touched upon below – вкратце даны ниже;

When you fire a rifle – когда вы стреляете из винтовки;

impressed force – приложенная сила;

in proportion – пропорционально;

on account of – вследствие, из-за, благодаря;

by virtue of – вследствие;

air-breather – воздушно-реактивный двигатель;

to push against smth. – отталкиваться от чего-л., опираться на что-л.

Л е к с и ч е с к и е у п р а ж н е н и я

Упражнение 1. Переведите предложения. Запомните значения выделенных слов.

attend (v.), attendee (n.)

1) They must have attended his lectures.

2) In former times, a computer would have as many as 10 people attending (up)on it.

3) Some 50 attendees attended that conference.

progress (v.), progress (n.)

1) Can we please progress to the next question on our list?

2) How are you progressing in your studies?

3) This research program facilitates progress.

4) Scientific progress is very important for our county.

apply (v.), application (n.)

1) The captain applied to headquarters for a transfer.

2) This rule applies to all cases.

3) The rule does not apply to this case.

4) To solve that problem they applied the new method.

5) He filed an application to be admitted to the intensive course.

accept (v.), acceptance (n.)

1) All those invited to next week's peace conference have accepted.

2) I accept on condition that he will assist.

3) We accept him as the greatest expert in this field.

4) I accept the correctness of your statement.

5) This theory is steadily gaining acceptance.

master (v.), master (n.), master (adj.)

1) He could never master mathematics.

2) He has mastered at last the difference between "would" and "should".

3) He has mastered every aspect of his profession.

4) Webmaster designs and develops Web sites.

4) Keep one as a master copy for your own reference and circulate the others.

accomplish (v.), accomplishment (n.)

1) We had accomplished our work just in time.

2) If we'd all work together, I think we could accomplish our goal.

3) By any standards, the accomplishments of the past year are extraordinary.

4) It was a real accomplishment to defeat them.

5) From a series of small accomplishments comes each major success.

6) Space exploration is a major accomplishment of science.

define (v.), definition (n.)

1) You can define the word "difficult" as "not easy".

2) Stipulative definition refers to a meaning a speaker attaches to a word, expression, or symbol that usually doesn't already have an established use in the sense intended.

3) Real definition provides a statement of the nature or essence of a thing.

demonstrate (v.), demonstration (n.)

1) The results demonstrate convincingly that this method is safe and reliable.

2) Saturday 20 October, Exeter, 700 demonstrate against the war.

3) You need to demonstrate to inspector some or all of the sampling data (данные выборки).

4) Logical demonstration is very important.

resist (v.), resistance (n.)

1) The soldiers resisted for two days.

2) The electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is the opposition to the passage of an electric current through that conductor; the inverse quantity is electrical conductance, the ease at which an electric current passes.

3) Electrical resistance shares some conceptual parallels with the mechanical notion of friction.

calculate (v.), calculation (n.)

1) We calculated that the work would take two days.

2) We didn't calculate for such bad results.

3) Calculation is a mathematical determination of the size or number of something.

4) If the first calculation is wrong, we make a second better.

exert (v.), exertion (n.)

1) You have to exert force to move this object.

2) Exertion is a concept describing the use of physical energy. It normally connotates a strenuous or costly effort related to physical, muscular, philosophical actions and work.

3) In physics exertion is use of energy against, or for, inertia as described by Isaac Newton's Newton's Laws of Motion third law.

4) In mechanics exertion describes use of force against a body in direction of its motion (vector).

react (v.), reaction (n.)

1) Calcium reacts with water but less violently (интенсивно) than sodium (натрий) and potassium (калий) do.

2) It is fairly easy to react unsaturated molecules with a variety of chemical reagents.

3) A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical substances to another.

4) In nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry, a nuclear reaction is semantically considered to be the process in which two nuclei, or else a nucleus of an atom and a subatomic particle (such as a proton, neutron, or high energy electron) from outside the atom, collide to produce one or more nuclides that are different from the nuclide(s) that began the process.

5) Thus, a nuclear reaction must cause a transformation of at least one nuclide to another.

6) In principle, a reaction can involve more than two particles colliding, but because the probability of three or more nuclei to meet at the same time at the same place is much less than for two nuclei, such an event is exceptionally rare.

match (v.), match (n.)

1) No one can match him in shooting.

2) In his youth, he was matched against some of the most famous chess players of his day.

3) These spare parts don't match.

supply (v.), supply (n.)

1) Energy supply provides the work of our equipment.

2) The word “supply’ may refer to the amount of a resource that is available.

3) Each computer is supplied with software.

fuel (v.), fuel (n.)

1) The long-distance plane has to stop to fuel up.

2) Fuels are any materials that store potential energy in forms that can be practicably released and used as heat energy.

3) The heat energy released by many fuels is transformed into mechanical energy via an engine.

4) The concept originally applied solely to those materials storing energy in the form of chemical energy that could be released through combustion, but the concept has since been also applied to other sources of heat energy such as nuclear energy, as well as releases of chemical energy released through non-combustion oxidation.

establish (v.), establishment (n.)

1) The engineers of our department have established the cause of program errors.

2) The switches are reconfigured during a circuit establishment phase.

3) This scientific research establishment carries out some new experiments.

achieve (v.), achievement (n.)

1) There are many who will work hard to achieve these goals.

2) We have achieved what we set out to do.

3) His plan was achieved.

4) Achievement is a thing done successfully, typically by effort, courage, or skill.

base (v.), base (n.)

1) The base of our system of numeration is 10.

2) Home base is a place from which operations or activities are carried out; headquarters.

3) The planes were in transit from their home base.

4) One should always base one's opinion on facts.

Г р а м м а т и ч е с к и е у п р а ж не н и я

Упражнение 2. Найдите в предложениях герундий по его признакам, пе­реведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод герундия.

1. On detecting danger on the road the computer signals the driver.

2. Detecting an object in front of a car in the dark is the pur­pose of the «night vision system».

3. One of the main problems of a driver on the road is keeping the speed constant and watching the cars ahead.

4. A new device for monitoring and adjusting air pres­sure in tires has recently been developed.

5. Before starting a car one must examine it carefully.

6. Computers are widely used for controlling all kinds of processes.

7. Samuel Morse's hobby was experimenting with electricity.

Упражнение 3. Определите функции герундия в предложениях. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод герундия.

1. One of the best ways of keeping the speed steady is using a computer for this purpose.

2. Newton's having made a mistake in his calculations has no influence on his theory.

3. On being turned on the radar will warn the driver of stationary or slow-moving ob­jects on the road.

4. Upon being heated the molecules begin mov­ing very rapidly.

5. The white line in the centre of the road is one of the most effective means of controlling traffic.

6. On graduating from the University S.P. Korolev began working in the field of rocket design.

7. The function of a car computer is detecting and summing up the information about the road conditions.

8. Moni­toring and adjusting air pressure in tires is one of the new develop­ments of the car designers.

9. It is difficult to solve some of the present-day scientific and technological problems without using supercomputers.

10. On seeing a red light on a panel and on hear­ing a warning sound the driver should decrease the speed.

11. By picking up infrared rays emitted by objects ahead of the car an im­age-processing system produces different images of objects.

12. On studying for half an hour before an exam one should switch over to some other activity.

Упражнение 4. Определите функции герундия в предложениях. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод герундия.

1. Original scientific thinking is very important for every researcher.

2. Many scientific discoveries preceded Newton's stating his laws of motion.

3. Newton's having stated his laws of motion is very important for modern science. 4. Without proper understanding the major laws of mechanics it is difficult for the students to take part in research.

5. On receiving wrong results one must repeat the experiment.

6. By studying Newton's laws of motion we learn that they are applied not only in engi­neering but in our daily life as well.

7. While Newton was studying at Cambridge his favourite work was experimenting.

8. On his friends' advice Newton started putting down on paper the results of his original scientific thinking.

9. The Principia's having been written in such a short time was due to its author's great previous work.

10. Newton was inter­ested in making experiments since he was a student at Cambridge.

11. New­ton's having invented the mathematical machinery needed for proving the validity of the basic laws of mechanics was of great importance.

12. The Principia's having been published brought Newton world fame.

13. On being set on a proper orbit completely free from the Earth's gravi­tation a satellite keeps on moving forward through space.

14. 14. Successful travelling of satellites depends on their having been set on a proper orbit.

15. There is a constant danger for every spaceship of being burned up because of its having been set on a wrong orbit.

16. The second law of mo­tion provides scientists with a means for measuring forces, which is of great importance in planning the orbits for artificial satellites.

17. There are two ways of stating the third law of motion.

18. Jet engines on account of their being air-breathers require an air supply from the atmosphere for feeding the hot gases.

19. The state of rest or uniform motion of a body is changed after its being acted upon by some external unbalanced force.

20. By repeating experiments one gets more data which help arriving at right conclusions.

Упражнение 5. Найдите герундий в функции обстоятельства, переведи­те предложения.

1. Flying from Los Angeles to Tokyo on board a new supersonic craft will take two hours.

2. On examining the car before starting on a long journey a driver can be sure that he will get to his destination without accidents.

3. By summing up the information about the speed and distance of various objects on the road, the computer detects all possible dangers.

4. A superliner of a new kind will be capa­ble of flying at five times above the speed of the sound.

5. The only way of overcoming the great air resistance at high velocities is fly­ing higher.

6. At low speeds the engine can use turbines for com­pressing the air before mixing it with fuel in the combustion chamber.

7. In the future, in switching over to the new Earth satel­lite a driver can be sure of coming safely to his destination.

8. Cryo­genic fuels will vaporize before being injected into combustion chamber.

9. In flowing over the aircraft's surface the fuel cools its skin.

10. On reaching its cruising speed the supersonic liner will fly at 100,000 feet above the Earth.

11. By using supercomputers it is possible to avoid making mistakes in extremely complicated ther­modynamic computations.

12. A new carburetor offers easier start­ing in cold weather.

13. By using the automatic guidance system a driver will be able to make long journeys without concentrating on the road conditions.

14. It is impossible to solve economic prob­lems without using the achievements of the scientific and techno­logical progress.

Упражнение 6. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод герундия.

1. Overcoming these difficulties is not so easy as it may seem. Overcoming these difficulties the designers can increase the fuel ef­ficiency.

2. Setting a problem the scientist makes the first step to its solution. Setting a problem is the first step to its solution.

3. Cover­ing the distance between Tokyo and Moscow in less than two hours this superliner develops a speed five times above the speed of sound. Covering the distance between Tokyo and Moscow on board a superliner requires about two hours.

4. Putting the discov­ery into practice the engineers will solve a complicated technologi­cal task. Putting the discovery into practice sometimes requires more effort than making it.

Упражнение 7. Найдите герундий в предложениях, переведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод герундия.

1. Proper relation between theory and practice must be observed in training young specialists.

2. The students get their practical training while they are working at different plants of our country.

3. They have been performing various jobs at the plant for about two months under the supervision of experienced workers.

4. From the very beginning the students are made responsible for their work.

5. Such an arrangement is leading to better understanding of a speciality, namely, to its appli­cation in daily practice.

6. For improving their knowledge in any partic­ular field of science the students use the materials available in the reading-room or in the library.

7. Many scientists have been looking for ways of increasing the speed of operations of machines.

8. Simple adding machines were known as far back as the 17th century.

9. In modern computers transistors are used for performing complicated operations.

10. The method of representing numbers and other information is based on the use of binary-digits.

11. Control, which is the mastermind of the machine, is used for interpreting the instructions the machine has been given.

12. This is a device for measuring temperature inside metal parts.

13. Measuring devices are used for a variety of purposes.

Упражнение 8. Определите, чем является ing-форма в следующем описании – герун­дием или причастием I. Переведите предложения.