II. Match the English and Russian equivalents:

a) flammability 1) домашний очаг

b) boiling point 2) бетонная

c) byproduct 3) сжиженный

d) heart 4) точка кипения

e) rural area 5) побочный

f) conveyer belt 6) воспламеняемость

g) concrete industry 7) сельская местность

h) liquefied natural gas 8) транспортерная лента

i) coal reserves 9) теплотворная способность

j) heating value 10) запасы угля

III. Decide whether the following statements are true or false according to the text.

1. Wood fuel can be used for cooking and heating, but can not be used for fueling steam engines.

2. Early examples include the use of wood heat near tents.

3. Total demand for fuel increased considerably with the industrial revolution.

4. This increased demand was met by the new fuel source, Oil.

5. Stoves have been made of metal materials only.

6. “Franklin” stoves aren’t made today.

7. Wood gasification boilers can be placed indoors or in an outbuilding.

8. Wood fuel remains viable in areas with easy access to forest.

IV. Put the following sentences in the correct order according to the text.

1. ____ The Greeks, Romans, Celts, Britons, and Gauls all had access to forests suitable for using as fuel.

2. ____ Today in rural, forested parts of the U.S., freestanding boilers are increasingly common.

3. ____ So-called “Franklin” stoves today are made in a great variety of styles.

4. ____ Masonry heaters or stoves went a step further becoming much more efficient than a fireplace alone.

5. ____ The 1800s become the high point of the cast iron stove.

6. ____ The metal stove was a technological development concurrent with the industrial revolution.

7. ____ In the 19^th century the airtight stove, originally made of steel, became common.

8. ____ Most of total demand for fuel was met by the new fuel source, coal.

V. Answer the following questions:

1. What is wood fuel?

2. What can wood fuel be used for?

3. What does the particular form of wood fuel used depend upon?

4. Is wood a renewable or non-renewable source of energy?

5. What is the earliest example of the use of wood as a fuel source?

6. What allowed more effective exhaustion of the smoke?

7. What materials have stoves been made of?

8. Where was the Franklin stove developed? What is its characteristic?

9. What were stoves built in the 1800s for?

10. What type of stoves became popular in the 19^th century?

11. Why did the use of wood heat decline in popularity?

12. Is it still used today? Where?

Text 2.

I. Read the text and be ready to do exercises that follow it.

Vocabulary

sedimentary rock [sedɪ'mentərɪ rok] осадочная порода

coke [kəuk] кокс

deposit [dipozit] месторождение, залежь

preparation plant[‚prepə’reɪʃən plænt] обогатительная фабрика

lignite [lignit] лигнит, бурый уголь

tar [ta:] смола, деготь, гудрон

moisture [moıstʃə] влажность, сырость

flexibility [‚fleksə’bɪlətɪ] гибкость, эластичность

iron ore [’aɪərn ɔ:] железная руда

remains [rɪ’meɪnz] остатки

raw material [rɔ: mə’tɪərɪəl] сырье

to bake [beɪk] обжигать

to smelt [smelt] плавить

swampy [‘swɔmpɪ] болотистый

crumbly [’krʌmbəli] крошащийся, рыхлый

abundant [ə’bʌndənt] обильный, изобилующий

combustion [kəm’bʌstſ(ə)n] сгорание

Coal

Coal is a combustable black or brownish –black sedimentary rock composed mostly of carbon and hydrocarbons. Coal is a non-renewable energy source because it takes millions of years to create. The energy in coal comes from the energy stored by plants that lived hundreds of millions of years ago, when the Earth was partly covered with swampy forests.

For millions of years, a layer of dead plants at the bottom of the swamps was covered by layers of water and dirt, trapping the energy of the dead plants. The head and pressure from the top layers helped the plant remains turn into what we today call coal (see Fig. 1)

Fig. 1. How coal was formed

Coal is classified into four main types, or ranks (anthracite, bituminous, subbituminous, and lignite), depending on the amounts and types of carbon it contains and on the amount of heat energy it can produce. The rank of a deposit of coal depends on the pressure and heat acting on the plant debris as it sank deeper and deeper over millions of years.

Anthracite contains 86–97 % carbon, and generally has a heating value slightly higher than bituminous coal. It accounts for less than 0,5 % of the coal mined in the United States.

Bituminous coal contains 45–86 % carbon. Bituminous coal was formed under high heat and pressure . Bituminous coal in the United States is between 100 to 300 million years old. It is the most abundant rank of coal found in the U.S. Bituminous coal is used to generate electricity and is an important fuel and raw material for the steel and iron industries.

Subbituminous coal has a lower heating value than bituminous coal. It typically contains 35–45 % carbon. Most subbituminous coal in the United States is at least 110 million years old. About 46% of the coal produced in the United States is subbituminous.

Lignite is the lowest rank of coal with the lowest energy content. Lignite coal deposits tend to be relatively young coal deposits that were not subjected to extreme heat or pressure, containing 25–35 % carbon. It is crumbly and has high moisture content.

Coal miners use giant machines to remove coal from the ground. They use two methods of the coal in the U.S. because it is less expensive than underground mining. Surface mining can be used when the coal is buried less than 200 feet underground. Underground mining, sometimes called deep mining, is used when coal is buried several hundred feet below the surface. Some underground mines are 1,000 feet deep.

After coal comes out of the ground, it typically goes on a conveyer belt to a preparation plant that is located at the mining site. The plant cleans and processes coal to remove other rocks and dirt, ash, and unwanted materials, increasing the heating value of the coal.

After coal is mined and processed, it is ready to be shipped to market.

Coal is used to create almost half of all electricity generated in the US. Power plants burn coal to make steam. The steam turns turbines that generate electricity.

A variety of industries use coal’s heat and by-products. Separated ingredients of coal (such as methanol and ethylene) are used in making plastics, tar, synthetic fibers, fertilizers, and medicines.

Coal is also used to make steel. Coal is baked in hot furnaces to make coke, which is used to smelt iron ore into iron needed for making steel. It is the very high temperatures created from the use of coke that gives steel the strength and flexibility for things like bridges, buildings, and automobiles. The concrete and paper industries also use large amount of coal.