
- •Linguistic paradigms.
- •Нistorical linguistics
- •Structural linguistics
- •Generative linguisticsA tree diagram. Lexical substitution rule. Recursion
- •Generative linguistics. The ways to link words in a sentence. Constituent analysis.
- •6. Rewrite rules. Representation of compulsory and optional constituents. Basic rewrite rules.
- •Linguistic paradigms. Functional linguistics
- •Language change.
- •Language change.
- •Comparing languages. The estimated number of world languages. Contrastive linguistics and the theory of universals.
- •Comparing languages. Linguistic typology. Morphological and word order criteria for language classification
- •14.Language and the Brain/Mind. Psycholinguistics: objectives.
- •15 Language and the Brain/Mind. Psycholinguistics.
- •16Language and the Brain/Mind. Cognitive linguistics vs. Psycholinguistics.
- •17Pragmatics: definition. Branches of pragmatics.
- •18Pragmatics. Speech act, its constituents and aspects. Types of speech acts. Direct and indirect speech acts. Felicity conditions
- •19Pragmatics, interpretation of a message. Frames, scripts, and implicatures. Pragmasemantics. Composition of a message: text linguistics and discourse analysis
- •22Pragmatics. Talking in turns. Adjacency pairs. Repairs.
- •30Sociolinguistics. Language contact. Convergence of dialects. Convergence of languages (via proximity and via assimilation).
19Pragmatics, interpretation of a message. Frames, scripts, and implicatures. Pragmasemantics. Composition of a message: text linguistics and discourse analysis
A speech act evokes the image that contains knowledge stored in the form of frames, or some stereotypical situations which are compatible with the felicity conditions. A frame is retained in the memory as a pre-existing knowledge structure with a fixed static pattern. Frames are adapted to fit the present reality, and they can be altered as required. E.g. I bought a dress yesterday (STORE, or MARKET PLACE + SELLER + BUYER + CASH, or CREDIT CARD, or CHECK); Close the window, please (ROOM + OPEN WINDOW + COLD/NOISE + A PERSON WHO CAN CLOSE THE WINDOW).
(See Aitchison, p. 97).
While frames are static structures, scripts are dynamic structures. They model the pre-existing knowledge for interpreting event sequences. E.g. I must go to the dentist (GIVE YOUR NAME TO THE RECEPTIONIST MAKE AN APPOINTMENT COME TO THE DENTIST HAVE YOUR TEETH EXAMINED ONE TOOTH HAS A CAVITY HAVE THE CAVITY STOPPED LEAVE THE DENTIST).
Frames and scripts applied in interpreting a message by the participants of interaction are based on background knowledge. It is the information shared by the participants and taken for granted. Background knowledge includes presuppositions and implicatures.
Presupposition fits into the meaning of an individual linguistic expression – its signified or referential (contextual) meaning. Presuppositions are conventional, conversational, and cultural. Conventional presupposition is information associated with the conventional meaning (the signified) of a linguistic expression. E.g. (grammar) an imperative sentence is typically understood as a command, e.g. Pass the salt. Open the window. Keep silence; (lexicon) He has recovered (He was ill). Conversational presupposition is information obvious from the referential situation, or a particular situation of speech, e.g. Jane has left for Kiev (the speakers know who Jane is). Cultural presupposition is information shared by people who belong to one and the same culture, e.g. We’ll have to elect a new Verhovna Rada. The Congress voted against this bill.
Implicature results from a combination of two or more linguistic expressions which look like incompatible formally, but which are compatible semantically because the meaning of the unsaid part of the utterance is easily inferred by the listener. In other words, the listener must assume that the speaker means to convey more than is being said, e.g. I hope, you have seen Peter. – Oh, I wasn’t in town on Monday (= I haven’t seen Peter who has already left by now).
Pragmasemantics, which borders on semantics, centers on the senses that a linguistic unit acquires in a particular message or text. Such meanings are also called functional meanings, or referential meanings, as they relate to definite referents in a concrete situation of speech. A linguistic unit, such as a word, may have several meanings, or senses (LSV), from which only one fits into the utterance. E.g. I’ve bought this chair at the auction . The lecture is given by the chair of the Department of English. Further, a particular sense may have a number of referents, from which only one is actualized as the referential meaning and is to be entailed by the listener. E.g. chair as a piece of furniture: large, antique, with a red seat, etc.; chair as the head of a department: John Smyth, aged 45, tall, black haired, etc. Entailment of referential meanings is grounded on frames, scripts, and various presuppositions: conventional, situational, and cultural. Situational presuppositions are particularly important for deictic words, such as pronouns, the semantics of which is made obvious only within some context.
MESSAGE: composition
Text linguistics is concerned with formal and semantic means which provide textual cohesion and coherence. Conventionally, textual cohesion (связность) means that a message, text in particular, is a structural unit. It exists as a whole due to a number of cohesive linguistic means, such as repetition, synonyms, anaphora and cataphora, comlex and compound sentences, linking words then, hence, therefore, after that, firstly, secondly, etc. Textual coherence (целостность) is primarily associated with the content of a message. Coherence is provided by the familiar and expected relationships in experience which we use to connect the meanings of words and
utterances, even when those connections are not explicitly made
(e.g. Plant sale is understood as ‘Somebody sells plants’, but Garage sale is understood as ‘Something is sold in a garage’). Coherence is grounded on frames and scripts as stereotypical knowledge structures of knowledge. Implicit connections may be quite sophisticated in literary, especially poetic, texts, the meaning of which is created via a somewhat unconventional integration of concepts. The link between them may require an effort on behalf of the reader.
Discourse analysis is concerned with the message, text in particular, placed within a particular communicative situation and considered with regard to the intention of the speaker, and the effect on the listener. Illocution and perlocution of a text cause its specific form and content, which is reflected in various genres and styles. Genre and style have their patterns, or standards, which must be observed in the composition of a message, or text. Hence, discourse analysis overlaps with stylistics. (See Aitchison, p. 97-99).
Discourse analysis is the study which deals with this topic. It overlaps with stylistics, the study of linguistics and literature. Devices which maintain the smooth flow of communication are particularly important in written language, where there is no one available to clarify unclear points
Taking it in turns
Conversation is not just a case of linking sentences together. On a more basic level, it fits into a conventional framework. Consider the 'dialogue' below:
Mother: And how's my pretty little darling then?
Вabу: Ugh...Ugh.
Mother: О what a nice bit of wind that was! You must be feeling better!
Baby: Goo, goo.
This brief snatch of 'conversation' illustrates one important fact about human speech: people take it in turns to talk. Even ifone of the participants cannot speak, the other one pretends that the non-talker has taken their turn. But we can go further than simply noting the
Pragmatics. Cooperative principle. Grice’s maxims. Floating and deception. (Lecture 3; Aitchison, p. 63-65).
20Cooperative principle. Grice’s maxims, or maxims of conversation. Breaking the cooperative principle. Multiple conversational implicatures. (See Aitchison, p. 63-65). Intentional violation of the maxims of conversation is called flouting /`flautin/ (Russ. издёвка, Ukr. глузування). In this case, the speaker remains cooperative, but expresses his or her thought very indirectly, often metaphorically. The listener is expected to be aware of what the speaker said. E.g. Student: How do you like my paper, professor? – Professor: The title is good. Kate: Ann has a new boyfriend. – Ann: I don’t like elephants. Floating differs from deception, an intentional violation of the maxims, which is hidden from the hearer. The speaker makes the listener believe that the statement is true, while it is not.
21Pragmatics. Face. Face-saving and face-threatening. Hedges. Principle of politeness. Positive politeness and negative politeness strategies (Lecture 3; Aitchison, p. 100-101; Masters’ presentation).
Principle of politeness. Principle of politeness is based on two major social requirements: “No criticism” and “No interference”. These requirements mean that the speaker should apply face-savings acts, or utterances and actions which help to avoid a potential threat to a person’s public self-image. Conversely, the speaker should not apply face-threatening acts, or utterances and actions which may threaten a person’s public self-image. The linguistic media that mediate the norms of social behavior and provide the speaker’s face-saving through courtesy, rapport, deference, and distance include special words and phrases (please, be so kind, it will be very nice of you), syntactic patterns (Open the window, will you?, Would/could you open the window, please), appropriate tones of voice, and acceptable forms of address. According to the principle of politeness, indirect forms of imperative speech are more preferable than the direct forms. One more medium for demonstrating politeness is hedges, or caution notes. E.g. As far as I know, they are married. You are ill, I guess. (See Aitchison, p. 100-101).
There are two types of politeness strategies. Positive politeness strategies aim to show solidarity with the listener. The speaker proposes to the listener some common action, which is most frequently expressed by the inclusive “we” and “let’s”. E.g. Let’s go to the movies this week. Why don’t we go to the movies this week? We really should go to the movies this week. Negative politeness strategies, on the other hand, show that the speaker respects the listener’s desire not to be imposed upon. The speaker inquires after the listener’s ability or willingness to do something. E.g. – I am having a party next Saturday night. Can you come? a) – Oh, I am sorry. I am leaving for Kyiv on Saturday. b) – Oh, yes, thank you. I’ll be there. The speaker can also express his or her desire indirectly. E.g. It’s cold in the room (= ‘Close the window’).