3. Rhyme

Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combination of words. Rhyming words are generally placed at a regular distance from each other. In verse they are usually placed at the end of the corresponding lines.

Identity and similarity of sound combinations may be relative. Thus, the first criterion is the identity of sound. Form this point of view we distinguish between full rhymes and incomplete rhymes. The full rhyme presupposes identity of the vowel sound and the following consonant sounds in a stressed syllable (heart – part, flood-blood).

Incomplete rhymes are divided into two main groups: vowel rhymes (ассонансы) and consonant rhymes (консонансы). In vowel rhymes the vowels of the syllables in corresponding words are identical, but the consonants may be different as in (advice-compromise). In consonant rhymes, on the contrary, consonants are identical and disparity in vowels, as in (wind-land, grey-grow).

The second criterion: morphological characteristics. Compound (broken) rhymes - when one word rhymes with a combination of words; or two or even three words rhyme with a corresponding two or three words, as in "better – forget her". The peculiarity of rhymes of this type is that the combination of words is made to sound like one word - this device will inevitably give a colloquial and sometimes a humorous touch to the utterance. Compound rhyme may be set against what is called eye - rhyme, where the letters and not the sounds are identical, as in love - prove, flood - brood, have - grave. It follows that compound rhyme is perceived in reading aloud, eye - rhyme can only be perceived in the written verse.

III the way the rhymes are arranged within the stanza: couplets – when the last words of 2 successive lines are rhymed – aa; cross rhymes – перекрёстные - abab; framing or ring rhymes – опоясывающие - abba.

IV according to their position: e.g. internal rhyme – the rhyming words are placed not at the ends of the lines but within the line:

“I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers.” (Shelley)

The rhyme has 2 functions, which are realized simultaneously: disserving (it breaks the line into 2 distinct parts, making the reader to pause) and consolidating (consolidates the ideas expressed in 2 parts).

4. Rhythm

Rhythm is the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables, more or less regular. As a SD rhythm is a combination of the ideal metrical scheme and its variations governed by the standard.

It exists in all spheres of human activity and assumes multifarious forms. It stirs up emotions whatever its nature or origin, whether it is musical, mechanical or symmetrical as in architecture.

It’s not only a regular pattern of sounds or movements; it’s also any regular pattern in nature or in life. Rhythm can be perceived only provided that there is some kind of experience in catching regularity of alternating patterns.

Rhythm has a great importance not only for music and poetry, but also for prose. In prose rhythm is closely connected with the metre, i.e. different metrical patterns. The rhythm of prose is based on the succession of images, themes and other big elements of the text; repetition, parallel constructions, chiasmus- перекрестный/ реверсированный повтор, similar syntactical patterns. The unit of measure here is not a syllable but a structure, a word-combination, a sequence of phrases, sentences and supra-phrasal units.

Rhythm intensifies the emotions. It contributes to the general sense, helps to get the flow of thoughts and humour of the author. In poetry it conveys the mood, emotions and feelings, sharpens the thought of the author and his characters. Rhythm adds specific importance to some ideas and feelings, it helps to create reality in text. It has expressive, symbolic and graphic functions. It can imitate movement, behaviour and even setting. It foregrounds some particular words, thoughts, ideas, feelings, and vice versa obscures others, thus adding a per’spective to the text.

5. Graphical EMs

Graphical EMs serve to convey in the written form those emotions which in the oral speech are expressed by intonation and stress, in written form they are shown mostly with the help of punctuation and deliberate change of a spelling of a word.

“A detective! I never ‘eard of such a thing! What d’yer come ‘ere for if yer want to be a detective. ‘Ere, yer not big enough, ‘cos yer’d ‘ave to be a pleeceman first before they’d let yer be a detective, and they’d never ‘ave yer as a pleeceman. ” (J.D. Priestley,“ Angel Pavement”)

Woman, without her, man is nothing.

All types of punctuation can be used to reflect the emphatic intonation of the speaker. Such ‘emphatic’ punctuation is used in many syntactical SDs: aposiopesis (break-in-the-narrative) [You’ll just come home, or I’ll …], rhetorical questions, su’spense etc.

The changed type (italics, bold type) or spelling multiplication (laaarge) are used to indicate the additional stress on the emphasis word or part of the word.

There is no direct connection between the graphical SDs and the intonation they reflect, for their choice is too inadequate for the variety and quality of emotions recurrent in intonation.

2. Стилістична морфологія. Поняття виразного засобу і стилістичного прийому на морфологічному рівні.

The main unit of the morphological level is a morpheme – the smallest meaningful unit which can be singled out in a word. There are two types of morphemes: root morphemes and affix ones. Morphology chiefly deals with forms, functions and meanings of affix morphemes.

Affix morphemes in English are subdivided into word-building and form-building morphemes. In the latter case affixation may be: 1) synthetical (boys, lived, comes, going); 2) analytical (has invited, is invited, does not invite); 3) based on the alteration of the root vowel (write-wrote); 4) suppletive (go-went).

There are few language (or paradigmatic) synonyms among English morphemes and only some of them form stylistic oppositions, e.g, he lives – he does live. Come! – Do come! Don’t forget – Don’t you forget. This scarcity of morphological EM which is predetermined by the analytical character of the English language is compensated by a great variety of SD.

Morphological SD as a deliberate shift in the fixed distribution of morphemes can be creted by means of: a) the violation of the usual combinability of morphemes within a word, e.g. the plural of uncountable nouns (sands, waters, times), or the Continuous forms of the verbs of sense perception (to be seeing, to be knowing, to be feeling); b) the violation of the contextual distribution of morphemes, which is called form transposition.

1.1. SD BASED ON THE USE OF NOUNS

The invariant grammatical meaning of the noun, that of substance, is realized through grammatical categories of number, case definiteness/ indefiniteness which can be used for stylistic purposes.

Such SD may be based on a) repeating the same words in a syntactical construction, e.g. women are women, or b) using metaphorically nouns which belong to different lexico-grammatical classes, e.g. He is a devil with the women (S.Barstow).

In the opposition of singular :: plural the latter is a marked member, and, accordingly, the possibilities of its stylistic use are greater. Nevertheless, singular forms can also acquire stylistic meaning, e.g. to shoot dark, to hunt pig. The formant ‘s’ as the marker of the category of possessiveness constantly widens the sphere of its usage and its combinability. It frequently combines with inanimate and abstract nouns, e.g. kitchen’s work, the plan’s failure. Sometimes it refers to a word group or a sentence, e.g. The blonde I had been dancing with’s name was Bemice Crabs or Krebs (J. Salinger). As a result, the opposition N1 of N2 :: N2’s N1 loses its stylistic character.

1.2. SD BASED ON THE USE OF ARTICLES

Articles which form the nucleus of the category of definiteness / indefiniteness in modern English may be regarded as analytical formants that might impact to the noun a stylistic coloring.

There are two ways of achieving a stylistic effect through the usage or non-usage of articles:

1) the violation of usual combinability of the definite and indefinite articles with proper names and the nouns denoting unique objects (sun, moon, sky, earth). The indefinite article with proper names might acquire evaluative meaning. While the definite article indicates a temporary or permanent quality of the person in question. Names of unique objects while used with the indefinite article acquire the meaning "one of many”;

2) the transposition of the meaning of an article in context. In this case the objects or phenomena are introduced by the narrator as if they are familiar to the reader. This device is sometimes called in medias res (the beginning from the middle).

1.3. SD BASED ON THE USE OF ADJECTIVES

In contrast with nouns, adjectives have only one grammatical category, that of comparison. The violation of morphemic combinability in adjectives which express different degree of comparison are typical of advertising techniques, e.g. the most Italian car. The meaning of comparison can be also expressed lexically through equonisms, e.g. senior – junior, and adjectives with the –ish suffix, e.g. mannish, womanish, which are occasional words which sound less categoric.

1.4. SD BASED ON THE USE OF PRONOUNS

Being very abstract, pronouns in contrast with nouns and adjectives are rarely used stylistically, which makes their stylistic usage especially expressive.

Pronouns may acquire stylistic value if they denote persons or objects that have not been named or introduced but are still represented as familiar. This device, in media res plunges the reader into the midst of events, making the author’s narrative more intimate (see E. Hemingway’s stories Now I Lay Me and In Another Country).

A particular stylistic effect may be created due to the usage of archaic (thee, thou, thy) or low colloquial forms of pronouns. While archaic forms make the speech sound official, solemn, or poetical, low colloquial forms usually render some speech characteristics. Pronouns can also undergo various contextual transpositions:

1) when we is used instead of I (I → we transposition):

a) Pluralis Auctoris ("editorial we”), when the author speaks on behalf of a certain group, party, or class;

b) Pluralis Majestatis, when we is used as a symbol of royal power;

c) Pluralis Modestial, when we is used as a means of involving the reader or listener into the author’s thoughts. It is typical of oral or written scientific prose;

d) when we is employed to impart to the utterance a jocular unceremonious coloring;

2) I → one transposition which gives an utterance a more general, impersonal character;

3) I → you transposition which frequently occurs in reported speech and some descriptions;

4) I → he/she transposition that takes place when:

a) the speaker tells his/her life story as an onlooker;

b) the speaker addresses himself/herself as an interlocuter;

c) the speaker overstresses his/her relevance;

d) the speaker laughs away what is said about him/her by the others;

5) you → we ("clinical we”) transposition, which conveys a patronizing attitude of the senior superior to the junior/inferior. It can also create a humorous effect.

1.5. SD BASED ON THE USE OF ADVERBS

Adverbs as one of the means of communicating intensity may be:

a) stylistically neutral, typical of both written and oral speech (exceedingly, quite, too, utterly);

b) stylistically marked, typical of oral speech only (awfully, terribly, dreadfully etc.).

The latter are close to intensifying particles.

Formal differentiation of suffix and non-suffix adverbs in Modern English is supported by their stylistic usage. The use of non-suffix adverbs is typical of the oral form of speech. In belles-lettres style they can become SD which impart greater vividness and expressiveness to the personage’s speech. Both types of adverbs may be found in the publicistic style.

1.6. SD BASED ON THE USE OF VERBS

The existing diversity of verb categories, forms and constructions makes this part of speech the richest one as to its stylistic possibilities. The stylistic potential of the verb finds its obvious manifestations in the use of aspect, tense, voice, and mood forms.

Verb aspect forms have a lot of synonyms which allow diverse synonymous substitutions. Present, Past and Future Continuous forms, being more emotional than Indefinite ones, are frequently used instead of the latter to emphasize the emotional tension of the utterance or to impart politeness to it.

The interchange of verb tense forms (past with historic present or present with past or future) in the narrative makes the events, actions and situations described more vivid.

Passive constructions which might have a greater emotional charge than active ones, because of their implicit agent, can make a literary text more expressive.

Impersonality accounts for either expressive or habitual use of passive constructions in those texts (mostly scientific papers) which are characterized by impartiality of judgment and objectiveness. Passive forms are also wide spread in colloquial speech, in the publicistic and official styles.

The category of mood, due to its modality, the expression of the speaker’s attitude to the events and phenomena described, also enjoys a great stylistic potential. While considering the stylistic usage of the imperative mood, it is important to take into account: social factors (age, social status, educational background, relations between the interlocutors) and different attitudinal overtones (categoric, pressing, mild, affectionate, threatening, ironical). These shades of meaning are chiefly rendered by means of intonation, but they can be also stressed by syntax (please, kindly, will you? the use of you to intensify the harshness of tone).

Imperative mood forms in a literary text, especially in its title, are used to create an illusion of the author’s or the narrator’s immediate contract with the reader. Such forms are also frequent in the publicistic, oratorical, and newspaper texts.

Semantics of the subjunctive mood forms which express wish, supposition, possibility, and unreality predetermine the use of these forms in all the styles of Modern English.

Thus, the synthetical forms of the subjunctive mood which were looked upon as obsolete have gained currency especially in American English. Such forms impart to literary texts colloquial connotations. In the publicistic style do is preferred to the analytical form with should which is regarded as more formal.

Subjective emotional evaluation may be also conveyed by means of the "emotional should” or the "would + infinitive” construction, which expresses supposition or the repetition of actions, e.g. "Why should I be ashamed of myself? – asked Gabriel” (J.Joyce); Now that there was something to be seen for his money, he had been coming down once, twice, even three times, a week and would mouse about among the debris for hours … And he would stand before them for minutes together (J.Galsworthy).

3. Поняття виразного засобу і стилістичного прийому на синтаксичному рівні. Виразні засоби синтаксису.        

1. The study of the texts in terms of their syntactical organization is regarded as one of the crucial issues in stylistic analysis, though the peculiarities of syntactical arrangement are not so conspicuous as the lexical and phraseological ones.

Stylistic syntax deals with specific patterns of syntactic usage, i.e. syntactical expressive means (EM) and stylistic devices (SD). In stylistic syntax, EM are recognized by less rule-bound modeling of sentences. All the deviations from the stylistically unmarked sentence pattern (S - P - 0 - D) are treated as its transforms that may acquire stylistic connotations, in which cases they are regarded as EM, The transformation of the pattern in question into negative and interrogative sentences rarely leads to any stylistic changes. Other transformations might create stylistically marked sentence patterns.

According to the type of transformation of the neutral syntactical pattern, all EM in English fall into three groups:

1. EM based on the reduction of the syntactical pattern that results from the deliberate omission of some (s) of obligatory elementthe sentence structure. This group includes ellipsis, aposiopesis, nominative sentences, and asyndeton.

2. EM based on the redundancy of the syntactical pattern that results from the addition of some sentence elements or their deliberate repetition. To this group we refer repetition, enumeration, syntactic tautology, polysyndeton, emphatic constructions, parenthetical clauses or sentences.

3. EM based on the violation of the grammatically fixed word order within a sentence or a deliberate isolation of some parts of the sentence. Here belong stylistic inversion, syntactical split, and detachment.

The stylistic effect in syntax may be created not only due to the intrasentential relations (those between the olornents of a sentence), but also due to the intersentential (i.e. the relations between several sentences) relations within paragraphs and other supraphrasal unities.

The stylistic effect in supersyntax may be achieved by the use of SD, i.e. stylistically marked means and patterns of combination of sentences within a larger context. SD may also be created due to the transposition of the syntactical meaning of a sentence in context. In this case a sentence acquires an additional meaning which is not typical of the corresponding syntactical structure.

Thus, taking into account the character of the relations between syntactical structures, possible transpositions of meanings in a context, and the means and types of connection within a sentence, we distinguish the following groups of syntactical SD:

1. SD based on the peculiar formal and semantic interaction of syntactical constructions within a sentential or suprasentential context: parallelism, chiasmus, anaphora, epiphora.

2. SD based on the transposition of the syntactical meaning in context: rhetorical questions.

3. SD based on the transformation of the types and means of connection within or between sentences: parcellation, subordination instead of coordination, and coordination instead of subordination.

2. EXPRESSIVE MEANS OF ENGLISH SYNTAX

2.1. EM BASED ON THE REDUCTION OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE.

Ellipsis the omission from a syntactical construction of one or more words which might be clearly understood from context. Elliptical sentences are regularly employed in conversational English. Being used in fiction, they result in achieving some stylistic effect by:

1) giving, speech characteristics, e.g. Not him, sir. Too pleased with himself. Some gentlemen can't act... Too stiff (A. Christie);

2) emphasizing some fact(s), e.g. The robbery. Long Ago. Very valuable emeralds... The lady's made and the tweeny (A. Christie);

3) imitating spontaneity, e.g. "Quick - in here," Poirot led the way into the nearest room..."And you - behind the curtain" (A. Christie).

Aposiopesis is a break in speech, while the thought is not completed, which is caused by the speaker's inability or unwillingness to finish the utterance, e.g. "Are you - are you and Paul...? " she stopped, squeezing my arm (D. Hammett); "It can be - you don't mean.." (A. Christie).

Nominative sentences are one-member sentences with a noun, a prepositional noun-phrase, or an adverb. These verbless sentences are grammatically independent. In contrast with elliptical sentences, they have only one principal part, with or without words modifying it.

Nominative sentences may produce the effect of:

1) increasing the dynamism of narration, e.g. A remarkable woman - a dangerous woman. No waiting - no preparation. This afternoon - this very afternoon - with him here as witness... (A. Christie);

2) acquainting the reader with the place or background of action, e.g. Three blocks more... Another three blocks. (D. Hammett).

Asyndeton is a deliberate avoidance of conjunctions used to connect sentences, clauses, or words. As far as its stylistic role is concerned, asyndeton creates a certain rhythmical arrangement, usually making the narrative measured, energetic, and tense, e.g. That's all I'm to do, all I want to do (D. Hammett); Tree and hall rose peaceful under the night sky and dear full orb; pearly paleness gilded the building; mellow brown gloom bosomed it round; shadows of deep green brooded above its oak-wreathed roof (Ch. Bronte).

2.2. EM BASED ON THE REDUNDANCY OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE

Repetition is a reiteration of the same word or phrase to lay an emphatic stress on certain parts of the sentence.

Various types of repetition can be found in fiction:

1) ordinary repetition, i.e. a repetition of a word in close succession, e.g. She talked, in fact, and talked, and talked (A. Berkley);

2) framing or ring repetition, i.e. a repetition in which the opening word or phrase is repeated at the end of the sentence or a group of sentences, e.g. I cooled off where Frank was concerned; he didn't notice, but I cooled off (V. Pritchett);

3) anadiplosis, or catch repetition, i.e. a repetition of the last word in a sentence or clause at the beginning of the next one, e.g. Yes, but I was afraid, afraid I'd go to one who'd tell Paul. I didn't know who to go to, who I could trust (D. Hammett);

4) chain repetition, i.e. a combination of catch repetitions, e.g. A smile would come into Mr.Pickwick's face. The smile extended into laugh; the laugh into roar, the roar became general (Ch. Dickens).

Enumeration is a repetition of homogeneous parts of the sentence, aimed at emphasizing the whole utterance, e.g. I found butlers, secondmen, chauffeurs, COOKS, maids, upstairs girs, downstairs girls, and a raft of miscellaneous flunkies - he had enough servants to run a hotel (D. Hammett).

Syntactical tautology is a superfluous repetition of semantically identical words or phrases to lay stress on a certain part of the sentence e.g. She's always one for a change, Gladdie is... (A. Christie).

Polysyndeton is a repetition of conjunctions in close succession which are used to connect sentences, clauses, or words and make the utterance more rhythmical, e.g. She had herself a rich ruby look, for what with eating and drinking, and shouting and laughing and singing her face was crimson and almost steaming (J. Priestley).

Emphatic constructions may intensity or contrast any part of the sentence, giving it an emotive charge. The emphatic construction with ‘do’ is used as a predicate intensifier. The construction "it is smb/smth who/that" intensifies the subject; the construction ''it is then that" stresses the adverbial modifier of time; "it is by/with/through smth that” makes prominent the adverbial modifier of manner. "It is to that/smth there that" brings to the foreground the object of the sentence, e.g. That evening it was Dave, who read to the boys their bed-time story (D.Carter); It was then that Poirot received a brief note from Sady Willard (A. Christie); I do know it! (D. Hammett).

Parenthetical clauses are sentences or phrases inserted into a syntactical structure without being grammatically connected with it. The functions of parenthesis are those of exemplification, deliberation, or reference. Parenthetical clauses may produce various stylistic effects:

1) creating two layers of the narrative, e.g. He tried to shake Wynant down by threat-ening to shoot him, bomb his house. Kidnap his children, cut his wife's throat - I don't know what all - if he didn’t come across (D. Hammett);

2) emphasizing this or that fact, e.g. He laughed - not loud but in complete delight - and stood up exclaiming: "Judith herself!" (D. Hammett);

3) exemplifying certain points, e.g. The dog – a shapeless monster in the night-buried itself at the other side of the gate and barked terrifically (D. Hammett).

2.3. EM BASED ON THE VIOLATION OF THE WORD-ORDER

Inversion is the violation of the fixed word order within an English sentence. There are two major kinds of inversion:

1. that one which results in the change of the grammatical meaning of a syntactic struc-ture, i.e. grammatical inversion (exclamatory and interrogative sentences), and

2. that one which results in adding to a sentence an emotive and emphatic colouring, i.e. stylistic inversion, e.g. And the palm-trees I like them not (A. Christie).

Inversion may be of two types:

1) complete, i.e. comprising the principal parts of the sentence, e.g. From behind me came Andrews voice (S. Chaplin);

2) partial, i.e. influencing the secondary parts of the sentence, e.g. Straight into the arms of the police they will go (A. Christie).

Separation, or syntactical split, is the splitting of a noun phrase by the attribute adjunct which is removed from the word it modifies. Stylistically, syntactical split is used to emphasize the phrase which was separated, e.g. He had never seen the truth before, about anything (R. Warren).

Detachment is a separation of a secondary part of the sentence with the aim of emphasizing it, e.g. Formidable and ponderous, counsel for the defence arose (A. Christie).

Detachment is to be regarded as a special kind of inversion, when some parts of the sentence are syntactically separated from its other members with which they are grammatically and logically connected.

3. SYNTACTICAL STYLISTIC DEVICES

3.1. SD BASED ON FORMAL AND SEMANTIC INTERACTION OF SYNTACTICAL CONSTRUCTIONS

Parallelism is a repetition in close succession of the constructions formed by a similar syntactical pattern. Like inversion, parallelism may be complete and partial. Complete parallelism is observed when the syntactical pattern of the sentence that follows is completely similar to the proceeding one, e.g. He door-bell didn't ring. His telephone-bell didn't ring (D. Hammett).

Parallelism is considered to be partial when either the beginning or the end of several neighbouring sentences are structurally similar, e.g. I want to see the Gorgensons together at home, I want to see Macawlay and I want to see Studsy Burke (D. Hammett).

Chiasmus (reversed parallelism) is a kind of parallelism where the word order of the sentence or clause that follows becomes inverted, e.g. He sat and watched me, I sat and watched him (D. Hammett).

The main stylistic function of chiasmus is to emphasize this or that part of the utterance, to break the rhythm and monotony of parallelism, e.g. Guild waited for me to say something, I waited for him (D. Hammett).

Anaphora is a repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences, e.g. Еrgo, she didn't: Ergo, there never was such a bet. Ergo, Beresford was lying. Ergo, Beresford wanted to get hold of those chocolates for some reason other than he stated (A. Berkley).

Anaphora contributes greatly to creating a certain rhythm of the narrative.

Epiphora is the repetition of the final words or word-groups in succeeding sentences or clauses, e.g. I come to you on the level. Studsy says you are on the level. Be on the level (D. Hammett).

3.2. SD BASED ON THE TRANSPOSITION OF SYNTACTICAL MEANING

Rhetorical questions are negative or affirmative statements rather than questions, possible answers being implied by the question itself, e.g. Is the day of the supernatural over? (A. Christie).

Rhetorical questions can often be found in modern fiction in the descriptions of the character's inner state, his/her meditations and reflections, e.g. And then, like a douche of cold water, came the horrible thought, was she right? (A. Christie).

3.3. SD BASED ON THE TRANSFORMATION OF TYPES AND MEANS OF SYN-TACTIC CONNECTION

Parcellation is a deliberate break of the sentence structure into two or more isolated parts, separated by a pause and a period. Parcellation is typical of colloquial speech. The main stylistic functions of parcellation are as follows:

1) specification of some concepts or facts, e.g. His wife had told him only the night before that he was getting a habit of it. Curious things, habits (A. Christie);

2) characterization of the personages' emotional state, e.g. It angered him finally. With a curious sort of anger Detached, somehow, separate from himself (C.B. Gilford);

3) description of the events or giving the personages' portrayal, e.g. I’d say he was thirty-five or –six. Sallow, dark hair and eyes, with the eyes set pretty close together, big mouth, long limp nose, bat-wing ears - shifty-looking (D.Hammett); A touring car, large, black, powerfully engined and with lowered curtains, came from the rear... Possibly a scout (D. Hammett).

The usage of coordination instead of subordination helps the author, to show differ-ent planes of narration. In this case the connection itself is more important stylistically than the contents of the sentence, e.g. He was more enthusiastic about America than ever, and he was not so simple, and he was not so nice (E. Hemingway).

 

4. Основні стилі мовленнєвої діяльності: офіційно-діловий стиль, науково-професійний стиль, публіцистичний стиль, літературно-розмовний стиль, фамільярно-розмовний стиль.

Literary Stratum of Words. Colloquial Words

The word-stock of any given language can be roughly divided into three uneven groups, differing from each other by the sphere of its possible use. The biggest division is made up of neutral words, possessing no stylistic connotation and suitable for any communicative , situation, two smaller ones are literary and colloquial strata respectively.

Literacy words serve to satisfy communicative demands of official, scientific, poetic messages, while the colloquial ones are employed in non-official everyday communication. Though there is no immediate correlation between the written and the oral forms of speech on the one hand, and the literary and colloquial words, on the other, yet, for the most part, the first ones are mainly observed in the written form, as most literary messages appear in writing. And vice versa: though there are many examples of colloquialisms in writing (informal letters, diaries, certain passages of memoirs, etc.), their usage is associated with the oral form of communication. Consequently, taking for analysis printed materials we shall find literary words in authorial speech, descriptions, considerations, while colloquialisms will be observed in the types of discourse, simulating (copying) everyday oral communication-i.e., in the dialogue (or interior monologue) of a prose work.

When we classify some speech (text) fragment as literary or colloquial it does not mean that all the words constituting it have a corresponding stylistic meaning. More than that: words with a pronounced stylistic connotation are few in any type of discourse, the overwhelming majority of its lexis being neutral. As our famous philologist L.V. Shcherba once said- a stylistically coloured word is like a drop of paint added to a glass of pure water and colouring the whole of it. Each of the two named groups of words, possessing a stylistic meaning, is not homogeneous as to the quality of the meaning, frequency of use, sphere of application, or the number and character of potential users. This is why each one is further divided into the general, i. e. known to and used by most native speakers in generalized literary (formal) or colloquial (informal) communication, and special bulks. The latter ones, in their turn, are subdivided into subgroups, each one serving a rather narrow, specified communicative purpose. So, among special literary words, as a rule, at least two major subgroups are mentioned.

They are:

1. Terms, i. e. words denoting objects, processes, phenomena of science, humanities, technique.

2. Archaisms, i. e. words,

• a) denoting historical phenomena which   are   no   more   in   use   (such   as   "yeoman",   "vassal", falconet"). These are historical words.

• b) used in poetry in the XVII-XIX cc. (such as "steed" for "horse";  "quoth" for "said";  "woe" for "sorrow").  These are poetic words.

• c) in the course of language history ousted by newer syn onymic words (such as "whereof = of which; "to deem" = to think;   "repast" - meal;    "nay" = no)    or   forms    ("maketh" = makes;    "thou wilt" = you will;  "brethren" = brothers). These are called archaic words (archaic forms) proper.

Literary words, both general (also called learned, bookish, high-flown) and special, contribute to the message the tone of solemnity, sophistication, seriousness, gravity, learnedness. They are used in official papers and documents, in scientific communication, in high poetry, in authorial speech of creative prose.

Colloquial words, on the contrary, mark the message as informal, non-official, conversational. Apart from general colloquial words, widely used by all speakers of the language in their everyday communication (e. g. "dad", "kid", "crony", "fan", "to pop", "folks"), such special subgroups may be mentioned:

1. Slang forms the biggest one. Slang words, used by most speakers in very informal communication, are highly emotive and expressive -'and as such, lose their originality rather fast and are replaced by newer formations. This tendency to synonymic expansion results in long chains of synonyms of various degrees of expressiveness, denoting one and the same concept. So, the idea of a "pretty girl" is worded by more than one hundred ways in slang.

In only one novel by S. Lewis    there are close to a dozen synonyms used by Babbitt, the central character, irreverence to a girl: "cookie", "tomato", "Jane", "sugar", "bird", "cutie", etc.

The substandard status of slang words and phrases, through universal usage, can be raised to the standard colloquial: "pal", "chum," "crony" for "friend"; "heavies", "woolies" for "thick panties"; "booze" for "liquor"; "dough" for "money"; "how's tricks" for "how's life"; "beat it" for "go away" and many many more-are examples of such a transition.

2. Jargonisms stand close to slang, also being substandard, expressive and emotive, but, unlike slang they are used by limited groups of people, united either professionally (in this case we deal with professional jargonisrns, or professionalisms}, or socially (here we deal with /argon/sins proper). In distinction from slang, jargonisrns of both types cover a narrow semantic field: in the first case it is that, connected with the technical side of some profession. So, in oil industry, e. g, for the terminological "driller" (буровик) there exist "borer", ^"digger", "wrencher", "hogger", "brake weight"; for "pipeliner" (трубопроводчик), "bender", "cat", "old cat", "collar-pecker", "hammerman"; for "geologist"-"smeller", "pebble pup", "rock hound", "witcher", etc From all the examples at least two points are evident: professionalisms are formed according to the existing word-building patterns or present existing words in new meanings, and, covering the field of special professional knowledge, which is semantically limited, they offer a vast variety of synonymic choices for naming one and the same professional item Jargonisrns proper are characterized by similar linguistic features, but differ in function and sphere of application. They originated from the thieves' jargon (1'argo, cant) and served to conceal the actual significance of the utterance from the uninitiated. Their major function thus was to be cryptic, secretive. This is why among them there are cases of conscious deformation of the existing words. The so-called back jargon (or back slang) can serve as an example: in their effort to conceal the machinations of dishonest card-playing, gamblers used numerals in their reversed form: "ano" for "one", "owt" for "two", "erth" for "three".

Anglo-American tradition, starting with E. Partridge, a famous English lexicographer, does not differentiate between slang and jargonisrns regarding these groups as one extensive stratum of words divided into general slang, used by all, or most, speakers and special slang, limited by the professional or social standing of the speaker . This debate appears to concentrate more on terminology than on essence. Indeed slang (general slang) and jargonisrns (special slang) have much in common, are emotive, expressive, unstable, fluctuating, tending to expanded synonymity within certain lexico-semantic groups and limited to a highly informal, substandard communication So it seems appropriate to use the indicated terms as synonyms.

3. Vulgarisms are coarse words with a strong emotive meaning, mostly derogatory, normally avoided in polite conversation. History of vulgarisms reflects the history of social ethics. So, in Shakespearean times people were much more linguistically frank and disphemistic in their communication than in the age of Enligtenment, or the Victorian era, famous for its prudish and reserved manners. Nowadays words which were labelled vulgar in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries are considered such no more. In fact, at present we are faced with the reverse of the problem: there are practically no words banned from use by the modern permissive society. Such intensifies as "bloody", "damned", "cursed", "hell of", formerly deleted from literature and not allowed in conversation, are not only welcomed in both written and oral speech, but, due to constant repetition, have lost much of their emotive impact and substandard quality. One of the best-known American editors and critics Maxwell Perkins, working witn tne serialized 1929 magazine edition of Hemingway's novel A. Farewell to Arms found that the publishers deleted close to a dozen words which they considered vulgar for their publication. Preparing the hardcover edition Perkins allowed half of them back ("son of a bitch", "whore", "whorehound," etc.). Starting from the late 'fifties no publishing house objected to any coarse or obscene expressions. Consequently, in contemporary West European and American prose all words, formerly considered vulgar for public use (including the four-letter words), are even approved by the existing moral and ethical standards of society and censorship.

4. Dialectal words are normative and devoid of any stylistic meaning in regional dialects, but used outside of them, carry a strong flavour of the locality where they belong. In Great Britain four major dialects are distinguished: Lowland Scotch, Northern, Midland (Central) and Southern. In the USA three major dialectal varieties are distinguished: New England, Southern and Midwestern (Central, Midland). These classifications do not include many minor local variations. Dialects markedly differ on the phonemic level: one and the same phoneme is differently pronounced in each of them. They differ also on the lexical level, having their own names for locally existing phenomena and also supplying locally circulating synonyms for the words, accepted by the language in general. Some of them have entered the general vocabulary and lost their dialectal status ("lad", "pet", "squash", "plaid"). Each of the above-mentioned four groups justifies its label of special colloquial words as each one, due to varying reasons, has application limited to a certain group of people or to certain communicative situations.

5. Деякі основні категорії тексту та їх стилістичне використання. Лексичні виразні засоби і стилістичні прийоми. Книжкова та розмовна лексика.

1. Every notional word of a natural language carries some definite information. This information may be basic or denotative andadditional or connotative.      The majority of words of the English language possesses denotative information only. So, they are stylistically neutral: man,house, to run, red etc. This does not mean that they cannot be used for stylistic purposes. A word in fiction acquires new qualities depending on its position, distribution, etc. Practically any word, depending on its context, may acquire certain connotations (honey-bum, sugar-plum).       In the English language, there are many words which possess not only basic information but additional information as well.      The additional information or connotative meaning may be of four types:  a)  functional stylistic meaning which is the result of the constant usage of the word in definite speech spheres or situations:foe, maiden, realm are mostly used in poetry; terms and nomenclature words are used in scientific prose style and in official documents;  b) evaluative meaning which bears reference to things, phenomena, or ideas through the evaluation of the denotate: out-of-date-method-time-tested method, firm-obstinate-pig-headed;  c) emotive meaning which expresses the speaker's emotional attitude to the denotate (chit, puppet, jade). Neutral words that name emotions like anger, pleasure, and pain should be distinguished from the above mentioned emotionally coloured words;  d) expressive meaning which does not refer directly to things or phenomena of the objective reality, but to the feelings and emotions of the speaker, it is based on the metaphoric transfer (speaking of a man – cockerel, bully, buck).      There are no strict rules for distinguishing between functional-stylistic and other connotative meanings. Moreover, the functional-stylistic meaning which is connected with a certain sphere of communication may serve as a starting point for the word acquiring other connotative meanings.  2. Stylistic classification of the vocabulary of any language is a very complicated problem. The existing classifications are based on different criteria, which take into account common semantic and stylistic characteristics of words in the given period of time (synchronic approach). The two criteria used for our classification are as follows:      1) paradigmatic criterion, i.e. the absence or presence in the word semantics of the additional information (evaluative,emotive, or expressive meaning);      2) syntagmatic criterion, i.e. the character of syntagmatic relations between the lexical or lexical-stylistic meaning of the word and its context.      Both criteria are interconnected. Proceeding from them and using N.D.Arutyunova’s ideas of the word semantics, we may divide all words of the English vocabulary into two major groups:      1. words having a lexico-stylistic paradigm which are characterized by:          a) an indirect reference to the object: fat cat (coll.) => a provider of money for political uses (neutral) => denotate;          b) subjective evaluative connotations;          c) referential borders which are not strict: these words are of a qualifying character so they may be used to characterize different referents;          d) synonyms;          e) possible antonyms.      To this group we refer poetic diction; archaisms (archaic words); barbarisms and foreign words; stylistic neologisms; slangisms; colloquialisms; jargonisms (social and professional); dialectal words; vulgarisms.      2. words having no lexico-stylistic paradigm are characterized by:          a) a direct reference to the object;          b) the absence of subjective evaluative connotations,          c) strict referential borders;          d) the lack of synonyms. Synonyms that they may have are purely denotative;          e) the lack of antonyms.      Here we refer stylistically neutral words; terms; nomenclature words; historical words; lexical neologisms; and exotic words. 

    Words having a lexico-stylistic paradigm are not homogeneous; they may enter the following oppositions: 

vocolloquial cabulary – bookish vocabulary non-literary words – literary words  general literary vocabulary – social or dialectal elements special vocabulary contemporary vocabulary — archaic vocabulary.

    However, the mentioned groups of words are not closed; they are intersecting – one and the same word may belong to two or more groups.

3. STYUSTIC FUNCTIONS OF THE WORDS HAVING A LEXICO-STYUSTIC PARADIGM          Lexical expressive means of the English language are words which do not only have denotative meaning but connotative as well. Depending on their connotative meaning such words fall into two major groups: literary (high-flown) words which are traditionally linked with poetic, bookish, or written speech and conversational (low-flown) words that are most often used in oral, colloquial speech. Literary words are more stable due to the traditions of the written type of speech. Conversational words are constantly changing. Within a period of time they can become high-flown or neutral, e.g. bet, mob, trip, fun, chap.  3.1. STYLISTIC FUNCTIONS OF LITERARY (HIGH-FLOWN) WORDS 

    Literary words of the English language can be classified into the following groups: poetic diction, archaic words, barbarisms and foreign words, bookish (learned) words. 

Poetic diction      Poetic words are stylistically marked, they form a lexico-stylistic paradigm. In the 17th-18th centuries they were widely used in poetry as synonyms of neutral words. In modern poetry such a vocabulary barely exists. 

    Poetic words are diverse; they include:      a) archaic words (commix – mix);      b) archaic forms (vale – valley);      c) historic words (argosy – large merchant ship);      d) poetic words proper (anarch, brine). 

    Their main function is to mark the text in which they are used as poetic, thus distinguishing it from non-fiction texts. In modern poetry such words are seldom used. Their stylistic meaning gets more vivid when they are contrasted to neutral words.  Archaic words

    Archaic words, i.e. out-dated words that denote existing objects, are divided into two groups:      a) archaic words proper: words which are no longer recognized in modern English. They were used in Old English and have either dropped out of language use entirely or completely changed (troth – faith, losel – worthless);      b) archaic forms of the words: corse instead of corpse, an instead of and, annoy instead of аnnоуаnсе. 

    Speaking of archaic words we should distinguish "ageing/newness” of the word form and "ageing/newness” of the denotate. And then, accordingly, we may correlate archaic words and historic words on the one hand as well as lexical and stylistic neologisms on the other.      Lexical neologisms are new words that denote new objects (laser shopping, pop promo, killer satellite). Stylistic neologisms are new names that denote already existing objects and notions (mole – a spy who successfully infiltrates an organization; ageism – discrimination of a person on the ground of age).  Historical words are associated with definite stages in the development of a society and cannot be neglected, though the things and phenomena to which they refer no longer exist.      Historical words (yeoman, thane, baldric, goblef) have no synonyms as compared to archaic words which may be replaced by their modern synonyms. 

    Historical words and lexical neologisms having no stylistic meaning, do not form lexico-stylistic paradigms. But archaic words and stylistic neologisms mark the text stylistically, distinguishing if from neutral speech.      In fiction, together with historical words, archaisms create the effect of antiquity, providing a true-to-life historical background and reminding the reader of past habits, customs, clothes etc. The usage of archaisms, incompatible with conversational words, might in some cases lead to a humorous or satirical effect. 

Barbarisms and foreign words

    There are many borrowings in every language, some of them being assimilated. We may distinguish four groups of such words in English: foreign words, barbarisms, exotic words, and borrowings.      Foreign words are close to barbarisms, but they are characterised by occasional usage only, mainly in literary speech. They do not form a lexico-stylistic paradigm, though they may be used to create some stylistic effect.      Barbarisms are words of foreign origin which have not been entirely assimilated into the English language preserving their former spelling and pronunciation. Most of them (e.g. chic, chagrin, en passant) have corresponding English synonyms.      Exotic words are borrowed foreign words denoting objects characteristic of a certain country (canzonet, matador). They have no synonyms in the language-borrower, do not form a lexico-stylislic paradigm and therefore are not considered to be lexical EM, but nevertheless they may be used for stylistic purposes.      Borrowings, if they are assimilated, do not differ much from native words as far as their stylistic aspect is concerned. They are usually high-flown synonyms of neutral native words (to commence – to begin, labour – work, female – woman).      The stylistic functions of barbarisms and foreign words are similar, they are used to create a local colouring, to identify a personage as a foreigner, or to show his/her mannerism.      Bookish (learned) words are mostly used in official or high-flown style (catenate, depicture, disimprove, dalliance). In official usage, they mark the text as belonging to this or that style of written speech, but when used in colloquial speech or in informal situations, they may create a comical effect.  3.2. STYLISTIC FUNCTIONS OF CONVERSATIONAL (LOW-FLOWN) WORDS     Here we refer colloquial words, general-slang words (interjargon), special slang words (social and professional jargons), dialectal words and vulgarisms. Some linguists differentiate slang and jargon, but the difference is vague and is practically irrelevant for stylistics. Generally, colloquial words according to their usage may be divided into three big groups:          1) literary colloquial;         2) familiar colloquial;         3) low colloquial.      According to the relations between their form and meaning, all colloquial words may be divided into three subgroups:          a) words which are based on the change of their phonetic or morphological form without changing their lexical and stylistic meaning;          b) words which are the result of the change of both their form and lexico-stylistic meaning;          c) words which resulted from the change of their lexical and/or lexico-stylistic meaning without changing their form.      The first subgroup comprises such varieties of word-form change as:         a) clipping (shortening): serge – sergeant, caff – caffeteria;          b) contamination of a word combination: leggo – let's go, kinna – kind of, c'mon – come on;          c) contamination of grammatical forms: I'd go, there's, we're going.      These words have no lexico-stylistic paradigms. They possess denotative meaning only.      Within the second group of colloquialisms, we may distinguish two varieties of the word-form change leading to the alteration of its lexico-stylistic meaning:      a) the change of the grammatical form which brings the change of the lexico-stylistic meaning: heaps – very many, a handful– a person causing a lot of trouble;      b) the change of the word-building pattern which causes the emergence of another lexico-stylistic meaning through;          - affixation: oldie, tenner, clippie;          - compounding: backroom boy, clip-joint;          - conversion: to bag, teach-in;          - telescopy: swellegant, flush, fruice;          - shortening and affixation: Archie (Archibald);          - compounding and affixation: strap-hanger, arty-crafty.      All these words form a lexico-stylistic paradigm as they have synonyms among neutral and literary words and are characterised by various connotations while giving additional characteristics to the denotate.      The third subgroup of colloquial words is the most numerous and comprises:          a) words with emotive-expressive meaning only: oh, bach, ah as well as word combinations having a special expressive function: I never, Good (Great) heavens, God forbid;          b) words and word combinations having both connotative and denotative meaning where the former one prevails: terribly,you don't say so, did he really;          c) words in which denotative and connotative meanings interplay: bunny – a waitress, colt-team – young team;          d) words in which denotative meaning in certain contextual conditions gives rise to a new connotative meaning: affair – business, to have an affair – to be in love, beggar – poor person, lucky beggar – lucky person;          e) words denotative and connotative meanings of which are completely different from their former meanings: chanter(poetic) – a singer; chanter (col.) - a person who sells horses at the market. 

    Slang is composed of highly colloquial words whose expressiveness and novelty make them emphatic and emotive as compared to their neutral synonyms. 

We саn distinguish two varieties of slang; general slang (interjargon) and special slangs (social as well as professional jargons). Some of the former slangisms may enter the colloquial or even the neutral layer of the vocabulary (phone, flu, sky-scrapei).Novelty is the most impressive feature of slang. As it disappears, they lose their expressiveness. 

    Vulgarisms are the words which are not generally used in public. However, they can be found in modern literature nowadays, though formerly they were tabooed or marked by the initial letters only.      Dialectal words (‘ud – would, ‘im – him, ‘aseen – have seen, canna – cannot, dinna – don’t, sportin – sporting) are used to intensify the emotive and expressive colouring of speech which is primarily determined by the peculiarities of social or geographical environment. 

    Conversational words of all kinds are widely used for stylistic purposes. There are four speech spheres in which they are mostly largely used: everyday speech, newspaper language, poetry, and fiction. 

    In newspaper language, colloquial words and word combinations, and sometimes general slang words, are used to give an expressive evaluation of facts and events. In modern poetry, words of all layers are most widely used. Lyrical poetry allows the usage of various non-poetic words to create the atmosphere of sincerity, confidence etc. Slang words in fiction (mostly in dialogues) add to the informality and emotiveness of the character’s speech alongside with indicating social and speech peculiarities of the personages.