- •General problems of lexicology. Lexicology as a branch of linguistics
- •Word as the basic unit of language
- •The semantic triangle
- •Lexical meaning and the semantic structure of English words
- •Semantic change: its types and causes
- •Linguistic causes of change
- •Extra-linguistic causes of change
- •Morphological structure of English words
- •Derivational and functional affixes
- •Allomorphs
- •Compound words in modern English
- •Classification of compounds
- •Derivational compounds
- •Reduplications in English
- •The historical development of English compounds
- •New wordforming patterns in composition
- •VII. Shortening in Modern English word-building
- •VIII. Conversion in Modern English word-building
- •Substantivation
- •Set expressions in modern English
- •Classification of set expressions
- •The origin of set expressions in modern English
- •English proverbs, sayings, familiar quotations*, clichés
- •Homonymy
- •The origin of homonyms in English
- •Synonyms
- •Sources of synonymy
- •Antonyms
- •Vocabulary as an adaptive system
- •Neologisms
- •Loss of words
- •Division of the vocabulary into groupings
- •Thematic groups
- •Terminological systems
- •Opposition of emotionally colored and emotionally neutral vocabularies
- •The origin of the modern English vocabulary. Native words versus loan words
- •Borrowings
- •Assimilation of loan words. The degree of assimilation
- •Etymological doublets
- •International words
- •Regional varieties of the English vocabulary. Standard English and dialects
- •American English
- •Canadian, Australian, Indian and other variants
- •Lexicography
- •Some of the basic problems of modern lexicography
Vocabulary as an adaptive system
“To adapt” means here to undergo constant modifications in both structure and function with the aim of being fit for any new use, new environment or new non-standard communicative situation. Being adaptive or adaptable the vocabulary of any living language changes constantly, adjusting itself to the ever-changing circumstances and requirements of human communication, its cultural, scientific, technical and other needs.
According to Ferdinand de Saussure synchronic linguistics deals with systems, while diachronic linguistics is concentrated upon single elements of language. Hence the language system should be studied as something fixed and unchangeable which is hard to agree with. The adaptive approach to the language system studies overcomes this contradiction.
Though the majority of linguists today agree that the vocabulary is a system and should be studied as such, the present state of knowledge only allows to deal with it as if it were a number of relatively autonomous systems, interrelated among themselves. Therefore the vocabulary of a living language can be defined as a system of systems that is subdivided into a number of smaller groups which are in fact groupings of words. Each group is then studied for different purposes.
The adaptive character of the vocabulary may be studied beginning with its result that is by studying the newest words constantly appearing in the language.
Neologisms
New words and expressions are created to denote some objects and phenomena coming into the life of the speaking community. Neologisms may also be new words used to denote the old objects. There are three types of neologisms pointed out by linguists:
words and phrases new in every aspect;
new meanings for the old word forms;
words, lately borrowed from other languages or new borrowings.
The principle criterion for defining whether a word is a neologism is the duration of the period it has been functioning in the language. If this time becomes relatively long, the word can no more be called a neologism.
Neologisms may not or rather should not be words absolutely new in any part of their structure, as many of them are coined from the old well-known morphemes. This is the reason that they are self-understandable and start functioning within the language without any additional adaptive period. E.g. aerobic, feedback, camcoder, black hole (new meaning for a combination of old words), raider. As we see, shortening, composition, conversion and their various combinations are actively used for making new words.
Sometimes neologisms are created by men of letters and then become commonly used. E.g. the word admass denoting mass advertising in its harmful effect on the human society was first used J.B. Presley. As a rule at the beginning of the new word’s functioning the unit is quite understandable and doesn’t need any special explanation. This happens due to the comprehensible character and/or it is constructed on the basis of the well-known word-building models. For example, the word teach-in which meant teaching in protest entailed in American English a number of other words which followed the same pattern, e.g. laugh-in (laughing in protest), love-in (show affection in public), bed-in (staying in bed in protest), pray-in (praying in segregated churches).
There’s a word alcoholic which was used as a basis for coining other units like workaholic, bookaholic, etc., all of them being self-explanatory. Another example is a compound washateria, which is a laundry plus cafeteria.
At this or that period of time some morphemes become especially attractive in the society and are actively used for the creation of new words. Such was the element anti- for the English language of the 1960s. E.g. antinovel, antipollution program, antiflash glasses, etc. Nowadays such morphemes are super-, hyper-, mega-.
Neologisms appear in every language sphere irrespective of the style and field of their usage, thus with the development of science and technology a lot of new often vague terminology appear in the language.