Syntax of a sentence

• A sentence typically contains two or more words that are related formally and semantically. A sentence exhibits the subject-predicate structure. Unlike phrases, sentences function as communicative units.

• A formal pattern of a sentence is a structure that demonstrates interrelation of words that is acceptable in a particular language. This structure is filled with individual units that have various meanings.

• The parts of a sentence are the subject, the predicate, an object (direct, indirect, and prepositional), an attribute, and an adverbial modifier (of place and direction, time and frequency, manner, attendant circumstances, degree and measure, cause, purpose, result, condition, concession, and comparison). The subject and predicate are the principal, or primary, parts of a sentence. An object, attribute, and adverbial modifier are the secondary parts of a sentence.

• The structural types of sentences include simple sentences, compound sentences, complex sentences, compound-complex sentences, and sentences with parentheses.

1. A simple sentence has only one clause that has a subject-predicate structure. Simple sentences are divided into two-member and one-member sentences.

1. Two-member sentences have both the subject and the predicate, e.g. Eng. She studies at the university. When one of the principal parts (the subject or the predicate) is missing because of ellipses and can be easily understood from the context, a complete two-member sentence becomes an incomplete one. E.g. Eng. Who has come? – Jane. What do you want to do? – To read a book.

2. One-member sentences have only one principal member, which is nether the subject nor the predicate, but rather a combination of both. The one member makes a sentence complete. Such sentences tend to describe existence of something, typically an object or a speaker’s thought and feeling. E.g. Eng. Freedom! Bells ringing out, flowers, kisses, wine (Heym). To die, to sleep, no more… (Shakespeare). Russ. Ночь. Улица. Фонарь. Аптека. Безрадостный и тусклый свет (Блок).

Simple sentences are called non-extended if they consist only of the primary parts, e.g. Eng. The boy is sleeping. A dog is an animal. Winter! Simple sentences are called extended if, along with the primary parts, they contain the secondary parts. E.g. Eng. The boy is sleeping in the bedroom upstairs. A dog is a very clever animal. A cold winter! The primary and secondary parts may be compulsory and optional. The compulsory parts make up the constructive basis of a sentence.

The constructive basis of a sentence is a structure, the elements of which cannot be omitted, as their omission makes the sentence ill-formed, or ungrammatical. The character of the constructive basis depends on the syntactic meaning of a verb that functions as the predicate. According to their syntactic meaning, verbs can be non-directed and directed. Non-directed verbs do not require any complement; in this case the constructive basis of a sentence includes only the subject and the predicate, e.g. Eng. The boy is sleeping. Mary is crying. Ukr. Хлопчик спить. Марія плаче. Directed verbs require a compulsory complement. Object-directed verbs must be accompanied by one or two objects that are compulsory for the constructive basis of a sentence. E.g. Eng. He has received a letter. She spends time. They enjoyed freedom. Ukr. Він одержав листа. Вона витрачає час (a direct object). Ukr.Вони насолождувались свободою (an indirect object). Eng. Peter has given the book to Paul. Peter has lent money to Paul. Ukr. Петро дав книгу Павлу. Петро позичив гроші Павлу (a direct object + an indirect object). Modifier-directed verbs must be accompanied by an adverbial modifier (mostly that of place), which is compulsory for the constructive basis of a sentence. E.g. They reside in London. Ukr. Вони проживають у Лондоні. The parts of a sentence that can be omitted without making it ungrammatical are called optional. E.g. Engl. Yesterday, Peter gave Paul a very interesting book about the Second World War.

2. A compound sentence consists of two or more clauses coordinated syndetically (with a coordinating conjunction or conjunctive adverb) or asyndetically (without a conjunctive word). The types of coordination are:

1. Copulative coordination, expressed by the conjunctions and, nor, neither…nor, not only…but (also), e.g. Eng. Spring came, and we went to the country.

2. Disjunctive coordination, expressed by the conjunctions or, else, or else, either…or, and the conjunctive adverb otherwise, e.g. Eng. Either we get married, or I will leave forever.

3. Adversative coordination, expressed by the conjunctions but, while, whereas, and the conjunctive adverb nevertheless, still, and yet, e.g. The book was dull, but/yet I found it useful.

4. Causative-consecutive coordination, expressed by the conjunctions for, so, and the conjunctive adverbs therefore, accordingly, consequently, hence, e.g. Eng. There was something strange about him, for he was grave and silent. They were friends, so/therefore they could understand each other.

The relations of coordination exposed between words in a phrase, clauses in a compound sentence, utterances in a dialogue, and extended individual messages in communication are called parataxis.

3. A complex sentence consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. The clauses may be linked syndetically and asyndetically. E.g. I thought that he would come later. I thought he would come later.

The types of subordinate clauses are defined with regard to their syntactic function in a complex sentence.

1. Subject clauses function as the subject of a sentence, e.g. Eng. What I want to do is to leave this place.

2. Predicative clauses perform the function of a predicative, e.g. Eng. My opinion is that you have failed to do that.

3. Object clauses function as an object, e.g. Eng. I thought that you had read this book.

4. Attributive clauses serve as an attribute, e.g. Eng. The letter that you’ve got must be replied today.

5. Adverbial clauses function as an adverbial modifier of place, time, cause, purpose, result, condition, concession, manner, and comparison. E.g. Mary is quite comfortable where she is (place). I went to school when I was 7 (time). She left because she couldn’t stand it anymore (cause). Peter moved closer, so that he could see the details of the picture (purpose). It was dark outside, so that the streets were nearly deserted (result). I’ll invite him to the party if I see him (condition). Although it was late, he decided to see Jane (concession). She did exactly as he had told her (manner). Mr. Smith looked as if he had not slept for many nights (comparison).

The relations of subordination exhibited in phrases, sentences, and larger units are called hypotaxis.

4. A compound-complex sentence consists of two or more coordinate clauses one of which at least has a subordinate clause, e.g. Eng. There were a lot of people in the room and, when he came in, all of them stood up.

5. A sentence with a parenthesis has an optional (parenthetical) clause, which is “an insertion” that can be easily removed without inflicting the meaning of a sentence. A parenthetical clause expresses an individual thought parallel to the one expressed by a sentence. E.g. She, I guess, is an excellent writer. John – I believe his name is John – is always late.

• Tree diagrams in transformational grammar (see 1, p. 63-77).