Morphological processes

Words consisting of two and more morphemes may undergo historical changes that alter the morphological structure. Such changes are called morphological processes. The latter are represented by redistribution, simplification, analogy, and grammaticalization.

• Redistribution (Russ. переразложение) is a shift of boundaries between morphemes. E.g. Russ. ходи-мъ > ход-им; Old Slavic жена – жена-мъ, жена-ми, жена-хъ > Russian жен-а, жен-ами, жен-ах.

• Simplification (Russ. опрощение) is a convergence of two morphemes into one, so that the number of morphemes in a word is reduced. E.g. Russ. кол-ес-о /root + suffix + inflection/ > колес-о /root + inflection/. Simplification is usually accompanied by redistribution. Typically, a part of the stem joins the suffix or inflection. E.g. Russ. сад-ов-н-ик > сад-ов-ник > сад-овник (complex suffix).

• Analogy is a change of the morphological structure under the influence of similar word forms. E.g. Russ. диалектальный > диалектный (analogous to объектный, предметный, портретный); Old Russian, plural, masculine с рабы, с товарищи > с рабами с товарищами (analogous to plural, feminine с женами).

• Grammaticalization is such a process when the lexical meaning of a word changes into the grammatical meaning. Thus, a notional word turns into an affix or a form word. E.g. Old Russian ходи + мъ, ходи + те /verb + pronoun/ > ходи-мъ, ходи-те; Russ. благо даря > благодаря /preposition/; Engl. one > an/a (an apple), this > the (the apple), to have (have asked), to be (is asking).

Derivational morphology (word-formation)

Derivational morphology studies the ways in which morphemes combine to make up words. Thus, derivational morphology focuses on derived words consisting of root and affixational morphemes. Derived words are opposed to simple words which cannot be analyzed into distinct morphemes. The basic notions of derivational morphology are the stem, formal derivational pattern, derivational meaning, semantic derivational pattern, and derivational paradigm.

Stem is the element of a word structure to which an external inflection (ending) is attached. The form of a stem typically relates to a particular part of speech. Structurally, a stem may consist solely of a root morpheme (a simple stem, e.g. girl), or two root morphemes (a compound stem, e.g. blackbird), or of a root morpheme plus a derivational affix (a complex stem, e.g. manli-ness, beautiful-ly). With regard to its ability to participate in word-formation, stems can be derivational and non-derivational. Derivational stems can participate in further word-formation, e.g. Eng. man – manned, manly, manhood, mankind, manhunt; manly – manliness; Ukr. ліс – лісок, лісовик, лісовий, пролісок, лісостеп; вовч- – вовчиця, вовчик. Non-derivational stems cannot participate in further word-formation, e.g. Engl. manned, manhood, mankind; Ukr. лісок, ставок, вовк.

Formal derivational pattern is a structure that demonstrates interrelation of morphemes in a word. This structure, when filled with individual morphemes, helps to create words that belong to different parts of speech. E.g. Eng.

v + -er = N (worker, teacher, runner, swimmer, reader, writer)

n + -ish = A (childish, womanish, bookish)

a + -ish = A (reddish, grayish, greenish)

n1 + n2 = N (arm-chair, ice-cream, term-paper, basketball)

prep + n = N (afternoon, afterthought, after-effect; upside, up-growth)

= Adv (overhead, uphill, up-stream, down-stream)

= Prep (alongside)

N  V: conversion (hand  to hand, hammer  to hammer, host  to host, root  to root)

Formal derivational patterns signify derivational meanings.

Derivational meaning is the meaning which relates the initial and the derived words, e.g. Eng. worker, teacher, runner (‘action – doer of this action’)

childish, bookish (‘thing – relation to this thing’)

reddish, grayish (‘color – pale shade of this color’)

basketball (‘parts – whole with these parts /game/’)

up-stream (‘trajectory, landmark – location)

to hand, to hammer (instrument – to act with this instrument).

Derivational meaning is represented in semantic (onomasiological) derivational patterns, which relate the semantic categories manifested by the derived word and its constituents.

(See “Lexicology: Methods of semantic analysis”).

Derivational patterns can be productive, semi-productive, and non-productive. Productive patterns are repeatedly used to produce words of the same type, e.g. Eng. v + -er = N (‘action – doer of this action’). Semi-productive patterns have a limited or occasional productivity, e.g. Engl. un- + A = A (‘quality – absence of this quality’): unhappy, usual, unequal, uneasy, but not *unsad, *undifficult. Non-productive patterns lack the capacity to form new words at the present stage of the development of language. E.g. Eng. be- + v = V (‘action – to spread this action in space’): to beset ‘to circulate, to siege’, to besmear ‘to cover with dirt’, to bekiss ‘to cover with kisses’, to bespread ‘to cover all over’, etc. This pattern, however, was productive at the earlier stages of the history of English.

Types of word-formation

(See “Lexicology: Word-stock formation”).

Derivational patterns create derivational paradigms. The latter can be of two types.

1. Model-based, or thematic, derivational paradigms include words that have one and the same formal derivational pattern and one and the same derivational meaning, e.g. Engl. a + -ness = N (‘quality’ – this quality thought of as a thing’): blackness, kindness, politeness, numbness, loudness, loneliness, likeness, etc.; Ukr. без- + а = А (‘quality – absence of this quality’): беззоряний, безвітряний, безсумнівний, безхарактерний, безсердечний, бездіяльний, безграмотний, etc.

2. Stem-based derivational paradigms include words with one and the same derivational stem, e.g. Engl. move, movie, movement, movable, immovable, moving; Ukr. голос, голосний, безгослосий, приголосний, голосовий, голосистий, голосити, голосувати.