15. Classification of vocabulary.

People usually use different approaches to classify words & the most important is classification from the point of view of translation challenges.

1)Words that can not be found in the recent eng-rus dictionaries. These words are neologisms. They may have different meanings in different contexts (configure- строить, построить, содержать, включать, объединать, итд)

2)False friends of the translator; for the most part they are international words ( figure – цифра, число, рисунок, схема, object – цель, предмет, procedure –метод, методика.

3)Words with a broad semantic range ( meaningful – надежный, значимый, полноценный, существенный итд).

4)Words with a very narrow semantic range & low frequentcy of occurrence ( chore- задача, работа, функция), the meaning is for the most part not registered in the dictionary.

5) Words that are stylistically colored & have affective connotations (excellent, extremely).

1) Neologisms. Among neologisms there may be found so-called new words (nuclear umbrella – ядерный зонтик); old words that changed their meaning (deterrent – ср-во устрашения, redundancy – увольнение рабочих) loan words (shuttle diplomacy – челночная дипломатия) coinages (создание неологизмов) (apply-in – требование равных возможностей при устройстве на работу; statesmanship – государственная мудрость), acronyms (radar – radio detection and ranging). To deal successfully with neologisms a tr-tor should analyze the context, consult latest editions of dictionaries, analyze the structure of the word to trace its origin or the core meaning. A word acquires some new meaning because of the connotations that are supplied to it by the context. Different meanings of polysemantic words are received & revealed in the context. The context is the minimal utterance diagnosing each of the words that is relevant to the context. So, the context individualizes the meaning & brings it out. The context reveals the concrete or abstract, direct or transferred meanings of a word. The context also reveals the free & bound meanings of words.

2) Translation of pseudo international words. It’s a distinct group of words that constitute a difficulty for a translator. As distinct from international words proper, which have more or less similar grammatical and phonetic form and the same meaning the pseudo international words differ in meaning from language to language either completely or partially.

1.Genuine international words: “electronics, algebra, etc”

2.Completely pseudo international words: “complexion, commutator, etc”

3.Partially pseudo international words: “elevator (элеватор – лифт)”

These words are known as false friends of the translator.

*We are told that BBC this autumn will give a massive coverage to the general election. - … широко освещать выборы…

The Russian word «прогресс» is monosemantic & has positive connotation. The English word “progress” is neutral & can be implied to any movement.

*Rake’s progress – жизнь повесы

*Her progress about London… – ее знакомство с Лондоном…

Sometimes the meaning of international words is identical in English and in Russian, but analysis shows that the connotations are different and this prevents us from using international words in translation.

*Secular and religious materials – светская и духовная литература

Contextual meaning arises in the context. It shouldn’t be regarded as part of the semantic structure of the word. Every word has a tremendous potential for creating contextual meanings and these contextual meanings are not arbitrary but determined by the semantic of the word. Very often he contextual meaning possible in one language is absolutely impossible in another.

* In an atomic war women and children will be the first hostages (дословно – заложники). – …жертвы

Contextual meaning produces a very strong effect, performs a stylistic function of defeated expectancy. The translator should ender the tone of it and he shouldn’t violate the terms of the TL.

3) Translation of Polysemantic words

A word acquires some new meaning because of the connotations that are supplied to it by the context.

Different meanings of polysemantic words are received and revealed in the context.

The context may not be limited to a minimal stretch of speech. Sometimes we need a paragraph or a chapter or a whole book for a correct interpretation of words. E.g. Thackeray writes, “the rich woman was in brilliant full toilet”, and here she is not “несчастная”, but “коварная”. Most of the words are polysemantic. As a rule, the word is used in the sentence in one of its m-gs and the context must show what m-g has been chosen by the speaker and cut off all other m-gs irrelevant for the particular act of communication. E.g. if somebody states that "Few Europeans speak Mandarin (мандаринский диалект китайского яз.)", the context shows that it is the Chinese lang-ge that is meant and not the Chinese fruit. If the same idea is expressed in a more ambiguous way, "Few Europeans know the first thing about Mandarin", the context of the sentence fails to indicate the relevant m-g. The context reveals diff. m-gs of the word: concrete or abstract, direct or transferred (=figurative), free or bound.

E.g. concrete / abstract m-g: the word “truth” may be used as opposite to “lie” (правда) or as an abstract philosophical notion (истина): 1. Tell me the truth – Скажи мне всю правду. 2. To understand the reality, it is necessary to have a theory of knowledge corresponding to truth. - … необходимо иметь теорию познания, соответствующую истине. E.g. free / bound m-g: 1. He made a pace or two forward – Он сделал шага два вперёд (free). 2. He kept pace with the time – Он не отставал от века (bound).

4) Translation of monosemantic words Monosemantic words are comparatively few in number, they comprise several groups:

•proper names (antroponyms);

•geographical names;

•names of institutions / organizations (corporations, political parties, trade unions) and titles of periodicals;

•scientific and technological terms.

Antroponyms have a nominative function: they help to identify a person. They are transcribed with TL letters ? 2 ways of rendering antroponyms: transcription and transliteration. Transcription is universally accepted as a way of translating names: Smith – Смит, Jack – Джек, Brown – Браун..

Sometimes we have to produce an impression upon people ? the function of an antroponym is to produce a telling name (a nickname): Держи морда – Get-hold-of-mug, Шалтай-Болтай – Humpty-Dumpty.

Geographical names are often rendered acc. to the usage that people have got accustomed to (rendering of g. names shows what foreign culture prevailed): Dover – г. Дувр, Hull – г. Гулль, Texas – Техас. Some cases show that tradition has been abandoned in favor of transcription: Virginia – Вирджиния (not Виргиния). Extended g. names, made up of 2-3 common nouns (имя нариц.) are translated word-for-word: the Cape of Good Hope – мыс Доброй Надежды, the United Kingdom – Соединённое королевство, the Rocky Mountains – Скалистые горы.

If the g. name includes both a proper name and a common name, the former is transcribed while the latter is either translated or transcribed or both: the Atlantic Ocean – Атлантический океан, Kansas City – Канзас-сити.

Names of institutions (firms and corporations), hotels, streets + titles of periodicals. In many cases they are transcribed, in some cases they are transliterated (transcription is supplemented by the elements of transliteration): Times – «Таймс», Life – «Лайф», General Motors Corporation – «Дженерал моторс корпорейшн», Harriman and Brothers – «Гарриман энд бразерс», Hotel Carlton – отель «Карлтон».

Some telling names are translated: the Red Lion – гостиница «Красный Лев».

Sometimes a name carries out a special function:

•The “Economist” publishing office is in Threadneedle Street. – Редакция журнала «Экономист» помещается на улице Треднидл Стрит.

•Tailors lived in Threadneedle Street. – Портные жили на улице «Иголка с ниткой».

Names of political parties, trade unions and similar organizations are usually translated word-for-word (with or without change in the word-order): the Republican Party – республиканская партия, the United Automobile Workers Union – Объединённый профсоюз рабочих автомобильной промышленности.

Terms are generally associated with a definite branch of science. They are characterized by the tendency to be monosemantic (at least in a given branch of science or technology): calorie – калория, equator – экватор, polysemantic - многозначный. One and the same term may have diff. meanings in diff. branches of science and technology (line – конвейер, поточная линия или трубопровод, поджигающий электрод) but the context often helps to identify the specific field to which the term belongs.

As a rule, Engl. technical terms (as well as political terms and terms in any other specific field) have their permanent equivalents in the corresponding Russ. terminological systems: magnitude – величина, oxygen – кислород, `surplus value – прибавочная стоимость, legislation – законодательство.

Many Russ. equivalents have been formed from the Engl. terms by transcription or loan translation: computer – компьютер, Congressman – конгрессмен, impeachment – импичмент, nuclear deterrent – ядерное устрашение. Some terms are international: theorem – теорема, declaration – декларация.

Names of animals, being a group of words of terminological nature, present a difficulty for the translator - they often acquire a figurative meaning, which may have no equivalent in the TL: a tiger – a smart-liveried (носящий ливрею) small boy as groom (конюх, слуга) – маленький жокей, мальчик-жокей.

5) As a rule stylistically colored words possess a considerable element of emotive meaning. Such words as “mug” & “phiz” are more stylistically expressive than their neutral counterpart “face”.

Words may not be only informative, they maybe affective at the same time. Many words may have affective connotations. They give us an aura of personal feelings. The usage of affective connotations produces a certain effect (pig, sugar, honey etc.) the idea of effective connotation is so important that every translator should know the means to express them. The choice of words is very important. You can call a man:

* Gentleman – individual – person – gent – guy – fellow – herd

The difference between forms of address shows your attitude.

* I have the honor to inform you sir – I should like to tell you sir – I’m telling you nester – Listen punk.

Every translator should be able to disregard extremes, trying to make information neutral to avoid misunderstanding.