24. Super phrasal units

A tr-r should always go beyond the s-ce. SPU is based upon topic-comment relationship (theme-rheme). The theory of T isn’t workable if it’s limited to the treatment of separate s-ces. It should consider the overall textual components, how s-ces are linked, how they depend on each other, how this/that SPU conveys it’s m-g. M-g of separate s-ces is based on the m-g of other s-es that are included in a larger unit. S-ces R semantically related to each other. A value of T lies in the tr-r’s ability to convey the m-g of a unit larger than a s-ce.

Two-direction sequence – dialogue

One-direction sequence – monologue

Supra-sentencial construction of the direction com. type – cumulative sequence – cumuleme. two-direction – occurseme

S-ce in a cumulative sequence can be connected :

- prospectively (effected by connective elements that relate a given s-ce to one that is to follow it) – “I tell you, one of the 2 things must happen…” – characteristic of scientific and tech texts

- retrospectively (relates s-ce to the one that precedes it)

Moskalskaya:

-macrotext = complete speech composition

-microtext = SPU, sequence of s-ces, characterized by sem-syn cohesion and com. purpose (sem. topic)

SPU is always monosemantic. The unity of theme is ensured by regular occurrence of key-ws and correlation of ws with one and the same object of reality.

Theme-rheme relations: pronouns, conjunctions, articles, conjunctive adverbs

Lex.-gr means of s-ce connection: conj., conjunctive adverbs, articles

Lex. Means: repetition, synonyms, ws of the same semantic group, es of abstract m-g (thing, case, stuff)

Syn. Means: w occur, parallel construction, ellipsis.

Not graphically shaped, depends on theme and rheme (mentality),

Rus: old- new; Eng : new-old.

Structure: if it’s less than a paragraph – not shaped, = to paragraph – shaped.

SPU checks the lay out – paragraph correctness. Important for the editing of the tr-n.

25. Lexical challenges.

A concept is distinguished by the word which is conveyed as a recognizable unit of meaning. It may be cut into meaning components (=сема). In a given language a concept is represented by a word, or a morpheme, a phrase or idiom, by tone or by word order. Concepts are identified in a language on the principles of contrast and comparison with the system of the same language. Languages have different concepts, these concepts can be similar or completely different. They may develop or be absent in a language. In any case we can’t speak of complete equivalence.

There are the same categories in some languages, but the ways they are conveyed and expressed may be entirely different.

Plurality vs. Singularity

Похороны = funeral

Часы = watch

To look into the eye = смотреть в глаза

To keep oneself in hand = держать себя в руках

The same meaning component may occur in the surface structure of the lexical items.

Sheep – sheep

Lamb – ягненок

Ram – овен

Category of number

Table – tables BUT Twenty-one tables

Oats – овес; money- деньги

Measles – корь

Ink – чернила

Information – данные

Cherries- вишня

Category of tense

Both English and Russian distinguish such forms of the predicate words as present, past and future and their grammatical meanings are identical.

A plurale tantum (plural: pluralia tantum) is a noun that appears only in the plural form and does not have a singular variant, though it may still refer to one or many of the objects it names. Many languages have pluralia tantum, such as the English words "scissors" and "pants".

The term for a noun which appears only in the lonely form is singulare tantum (plural: singularia tantum), for example the English words "dust" and "wealth". Singulare tantum is defined by the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary as: "Gram. A word having only a singular form; esp. a non-count noun." In the English language, such words are almost always uncountable nouns.

Generic and specific concepts can be found in any language. One and the same word can be used at different levels.

The category of gender may serve as a good example

Russian distinguishes among 3 manifestation of gender: masculine, feminine and neutral, which are formally expressed in the following ways:

- Demonstrative pronouns (этот, эта, это),

- Endings of verbs (шел, шла),

- Inflexion of the nouns (стол_, вода, окно),

- Pronominal substitution (зверь- он, дверь- она).

In English the same 3 genders are distinguished, but there is only one-way to express the distinction:

- Pronominal substitution.boy –he; girl-she.

There’s no such thing as agreement in gender or difference in inflexional endings in English. Consequently the category of gender is expressed by personal, possessive, reflexive pronouns. The thing is that gender is not marked in English, which leads to the importance of context:

Artist – художник (-ца)

Student – студент (-ка)

When we translate fables, where personification often takes place, such things become important:

The Fly: English – masculine, Russian – feminine

Human-being – man – husband

Человек – мужчина – муж

Ученый муж – scholar

There are generic notions that are different in different languages/.

Зерно – corn, rice,

Сутки – the 24’s, day

2:00 – two in the morning

In some languages the concept of “evil” is equal to the concept of “bad”, but evil isn’t always translated as bad.

The atmosphere was evil. – враждебная

A tall building – высокое здание

There are pairs in language that are different by one component of meaning.

Он жил в 20 веке – He lived in the 20 century

Он жил здесь 2 года – He had stayed with us for 2 years

*He lives in Moscow – He lived in Moscow

*He said that he lived in Moscow – он сказал, что живет в Москве (sequence of tenses)