21.Taboo words.

In every l-ge there seem to be certain unmentionables. We speak of four-letter words, swear words or curse words. The term four-letter word is a synonym for vulgar expressions, and is a euphemism relating to a group of words consisting of four letters, such as shit, fuck, damn etc. The term ‘swear words’ includes the term to swear that is `to use foul language?. Curse words include the same root as the term to curse that is to use inappropriate language. The two terms are usually used synonymously, the difference is widely ignored.

These words are very important cos communication as such should possess such a social quality as political correctness. (Political correctness or polcor emerged on US university campuses during the 1980s and 1990s, and is essentially a politically-motivated programme of attempted language reform. It is strongly associated with feminism, post-modernism and the academic left. The term 'PC' is often used to refer to any practice or decision which has been noticably influenced by, or which seeks to promote, a post-modernist, leftist or feminist agenda. However, prescriptive language reform remains one of its key components). Pol. cor-ness depends to a large extent on the cultural peculiarities of a nation or an ethnic group. Due to the fact that these words possess a strong effective connotation they cannot be used in polite speech. But we should understand that not all that is inappropriate in one society can cause the same reaction in another. Cannibalism, a taboo issue in the western world, was viewed totally differently in those cultures where it was a part of rites and traditions. Yet there are topics, which are to be found taboo in many different societies. Throughout literature in most cultures, the topic of incest has been among the strongest and most commonly found taboo issues, also topics like necrophilia and other subject matters which strike the majority of readers as the abhorrent, often relating to sexuality.

Practically every nation is not very easy about using some words concerning excretion and sex. Nowadays people are not so particular about things but a few decades ago you couldn’t speak freely about such things as breast, words referring to anatomy and sex were not used. In the 19th century it was inelegant to speak of going to bed (they said “to retire”). The word leg was considered of vulgar and sexual in nature. The euphemistic term limb had to be used instead. This was generalized to the degree that even the legs of a table were to be talked about as limbs. This taboo of using the word leg extended the sexual connotation of the term leg to the point where interior design began covering the limbs of tables with cloth.

Sometimes words & expressions degrade in meaning. If you translate the book, belonging to the 19th century you should understand that “to make love” in those times meant “to court”. They never mentioned lavatory, WC, toilet. Instead – restroom, bathroom. Though some time ago ‘toilet’ was a euphemism. *gentlemen – wash their hands, ladies – powder their noses. They never spoke about making love, they used euphemisms. But still even now such words produce serious problems. Sometimes you have to be outspoken on the matters of sex.

In American and British cultures money is another subject about which communication is inhibited. In Rus. we can ask how much a person makes. But in America it’s impolite (Britain, Japan the same). When creditors send bills they almost never mention money, although it’s money they’re writing about. They do it in a round-about way. If you owe a sum of money to some company you’ll get such a note: “We beg to call your attention to what may be an oversight of your part”.

The fear of death creates another problem. Instead of saying this person died a few days ago they say s/he passed away, departed, bought the farm, went west; to come home feet first for someone having been killed; To fall means to die `on military duty?, a term describing the image of the soldier dropping dead onto the battlefield. The very word ‘death’ they substituted by the euphemism Big D, also, the threat and the helplessness people feel towards the illness cancer have created the euphemism Big C. In Japanese they don’t mention four. Instead of ??-???.

The stronger verbal taboos have the strongest social value. It’s not polite to swear, but it’s better than to heat other people. It’s necessary for a tr-or to remember the spheres. The study of the Bible brings about certain ideas concerning the name of God instead – Gush, not Jesus but Jees. Gee whiz was developed as a substitute for Jesus, which is considered a blasphemous usage of the name and thus constitutes cursing. People avoid mentioning the name of devil, instead – Deuce, Dickens, Old Nick. So maybe people feel that God’s name is too holy and the Devil’s one is too terrifying to use them.

The behavior laws prohibit the translator to use taboo words. Sometimes it’s necessary to discuss some shocking matters (AIDS). In such cases vague explanations full of euphemisms cannot be used.

More examples.

Banned Terms in China

1. Physically handicapped persons should not be described by denigrating terms such as "cripple", "one-eyed dragon", "blindie", "deafie", "fool", "idiot". Instead, the appropriate terms are "handicapped person", "blind person ", "deaf person", "mentally impaired person".

2. For persons in the art and literature field, do no use terms such as "movie king", "movie queen", "superstar", "celestial king". Normally, use instead "art and literature field person" or "famous actor/actress", "famous artist," etc.

3. When news reports involve the following types of persons, their real names should not be disclosed:

(1) Relatives of suspected criminals:

(2) Minors suspected of being involved in a criminal case;

(3) Children and women suspected of being involved in a criminal case;

(4) Pregnant women or new mothers who used artificial insemination or other fertility aids;

(5) Persons who have serious contagious diseases;

(6) Mental patients;

(7) Women coerced by force to engage in prostitution;

(8) AIDS patients;

(9) Persons with a drug abuse history or compelled to undergo treatment for a drug addiction.

In reporting about these people, the report can refer to the family of the person but use X as the given name, as in Zhang X, Li X. Aliases are not appropriate.

4. Concerning the principals in a criminal case for which the court has not yet rendered a verdict, "criminal" should be avoided and "suspected criminal" should be used instead.

5. It is forbidden to use slang or professional terminology that may insult various ethnic groups. For example, it is banned to use "Mongolian doctor" for a charlatan doctor, or to use "Mongolian" to refer to the condition of Down syndrome.

6. In all reports concerning persons who believe in Islam, "pork" must not be mentioned.

7. Do not use "Muslim countries" or "Muslim world". Instead use "Islamic countries" and "Islamic world."

8. In reporting social crimes or armed conflicts, do not emphasize the skin color, racial and gender characteristics of the suspected criminals and conflict participants. For example, the reports should avoid "black criminals"; use "criminals" directly.

The term lesbian, applying to a female homosexual, replaced the most widely used term, namely Sappho who lived on the island of Lesbos. The two terms Sappho and lesbian appeared around the same time in the late 1920s. But now, instead of associating the sexual preference with the person Sappho, it is associated with the island she lived on and specifically its inhabitants, the Lesbians.

Not only is it a rather old taboo word (the OED gives 1535 as the earliest record), but it also has a wide variety of usages. It is, as a verb (transitive and intransitive), first of all referring to the act of copulation. As an exclamation it is a coarse equivalent for damn. As a construction with various adverbs, it drastically expands it’s meaning beyond the purely sexual. To fuck off means `to go away?, to fuck up means `to ruin, spoil or mess up?. Fucking is also used as a mere intensive. It is referring to a person in a sexual context (a fuck) and, in the form of fucker, can describe either a specific individual or be used as a general term of abuse. There is also a big difference as to the dates the word in its many meanings first appears. They vary from 1535 (fuck as a verb) to 1960 (fuck-all, meaning nothing). [9] Here it is evident that fuck has not only expanded its meaning, but also created new derivatives. It has become more common and it has lost the element of the exceptional.