19.Non equivalents.

Translation of non-equivalents A number of SL units have no regular equivalents in TL. They are usually culture-bound. That is, the words of the SL either have no equivalents in the TL or no equivalent notions in the T Culture. 2 groups of non-equivalents:

phenomena that characterize diff. aspects of national life (customs, traditions, everyday situations and the like): coroner (следователь, ведущий дела о насильственной или скоропостижной смерти), condominium (совладение), im­peachment, baby-sitter (приходящая няня), teach-in (диспут-семинар), drive-in (кинотеатр под открытым небом), House of Commons. These non-equivalents have to be explored.

lexical units, which for some linguistic reasons have no equivalents in the TL: bidder (выступающий на торгах покупатель), conservationist (специалист по охране окружающей среды), readership (должность преподавателя университета, лектора), glimpse.

The absence of regular equivalents does not mean that the m-g of an equivalent-lacking SL unit cann’t be rendered or that its translation must be less accurate. Ways of rendering non-equivalents:

1. by direct borrowing – both by translation and transliteration: impeachment, know-how.

2. by translation loans (using loan-words imitating in the TL the form of the SL word or word combination): tribalism – трайбализм (стремление к племенному обособлению, межплеменная вражда), backbencher – заднескамеечник (рядовой член парламента), brain-drain – утечка мозгов, House of Commons – Палата Общин. Often such occasional formations are adopted by the members of the TL community and get the status of regular equivalents.

3. by descriptive or interpreting translation (using an explanation to convey the m-g of the SL unit): land­ slide-победа на выборах подавляющим большинством голосов, brinkmanship — искусство проведения политики на грани войны, конфронтация, a stringer – частично занятый корреспондент, труд которого оплачивается из расчёта количества слов. This method is sometimes used together with the previous one when the introduction of a loan-word is followed by a foot-note explaining the m-g of the equivalent-lacking word in ST. Sometimes it’s possible to use approximate substitutes - TL words with similar m-g which is extended to convey additional information (if necessary, with the help of foot-notes): drugstore - аптека, afternoon - вечер. The Russ. «аптека» is not exactly a drugstore where they also sell such items as magazines, soft drinks, ice-cream, etc., but in some cases this approximate equivalent can well be used.

20.Words with built-in judgment

Words may not be only informative, they maybe affective at the same time. Many words may have affective connotations. They give us an aura of personal feelings. The usage of affective connotations produces a certain effect (pig, sugar, honey etc.) the idea of effective connotation is so important that every translator should know the means to express them. The choice of words is very important. You can call a man:

* Gentleman – individual – person – gent – guy – fellow – herd

The difference between forms of address shows your attitude.

* I have the honor to inform you sir – I should like to tell you sir – I’m telling you nester – Listen punk

Judgments look like facts but they are not facts. They are usually regarded as a barrier to clear thinking. They express the speaker’s approval or disapproval. If a person expresses disapproval he uses words having negative connotation, approval – positive (always exaggerated). Every translator should be able to disregard extremes, trying to make information neutral to avoid misunderstanding. No judgment is directly stated. It’s implied. *It’s a wonderful car.

The words with built-in judgment.

Some words have both informative & affective connotations simultaneously. To many people the word “liberal” has both. 1) One who believes in liberal values, liberal attitude to things. 2) One whose ideals & purposes are all together unacceptable. These are recently required connotations.

Words with built-in judgment apply to occupations which one disapproves (pick-pocket, rocketir). And the applying to believers of philosophies of which one disapproves such as “radical, materialist”.

In this case the word carries both some information, a fact & a judgment on that fact. These words are called loaded words. Though they are used very often, the load is still left & it’s difficult for a translator to find an adequate word for a word with built-in judgment (pick-pocket – карманник, щипач). It depends upon the measure of the load.

The problem of correctness.

In the USA there is a strong prejudice against the ethnic group such as Mexican Americans, whether immigrants or Americans born & the strength of this prejudice is that polite people & the press have stopped to use the word Mexico. Instead of “Mexican” they use the word “Ispanic”.

To avoid negative connotation they use the term that the Mexican people have chosen to describe themselves (Chicago, Latino).

Names that are loaded tend to influence the behavior towards those people to whom they are applied.

Street became a shelter for some people practically in any country. In America these people used to be referred to “bums”. A word suggests a lack of desire to work, people who are lazy, satisfied with little, who have no desire to enter the middle class society & subscribe to its values.

In Russia we have practically the same. A respectable acronym “БОМЖ” acquired quite a negative meaning.

Instead of this word people come to use such phrase as “street people, homeless, displaced person”. In many cases people are sympathetic to those who are drunkers (use “problem drunker, substance abuser” instead of “drunkard”).

In America instead of retarded people they usually use “developmentally disabled”, they never use the word “idiot” (they say “she is different or a bit slow”).

Some words change their connotations several times. In America not so long ago they were accustomed to the word “Negro”. But not so many people used it with negative connotation. For a black person the word seems insulting. In recent times the black people came to be called “African Americans” & this is not a final expression. They want to be called “black people” instead of “white people”.

Japanese people were called “Jap”. All of a sudden the word “Jap” appeared to acquire a different meaning. Some people who dislike Jewish in America came to use the word “Jap” as an acronym which described Jewish girls as being arrogant, rich, unable to do some work (Jewish American princess).

The problem of discrimination becomes even more complex when you come to deal with gender problems. The word “man” is a very good example. There is a man at the door & you can’t know whether this is male or female?

Sometimes the informative connotation may be misleading. It may be quite inadequate. But affective connotation may be sufficiently well-desired. So that we are able to interpret correctly.

Then, on the contrary, the informative connotation may be correct enough but the affective connotation may be inappropriate & misleading. We should remember that both informative & affective connotations may sound all right but they may not be true to fact.