Yi. Lexical Stylistic Device.

6.1. Metaphor. Personification

6.2. Metonymy. Synecdoche.

6.3. Play of Words:

paronomasia,

zeugma,

violation of phraseological units,

semantically false chains,

nonsense of non-sequence

6.4. Irony.

6.5. Antonomasia.

6.6. Epithet.

6.7. Hyperbole.

6.8. Understatement.

6.9. Oxymoron.

Among multiple functions of the word, the main one is to denote. Denotational meaning is the major semantic characteristic of the word. This particular function may be foregrounded. Such type of denoting phenomena creates additional expressive, evaluative, subjective connotations.

The existing names are approved by long usage and are fixed in dictionaries. They may be substituted by new, occasional, individual ones, which are prompted by the speaker’s subjective original view and evaluation of things. This act of name-exchange, of substitution is traditionally named as transference. The name of one object is transferred onto another. This proceeds from their similarity of shape, colour, function, or closeness of material existence, cause, effect, instrument, result. Each type of intended substitution results in a stylistic device, which is called a trope.

Metaphor is the most frequently used, well-known and elaborated trope. Metaphor is transference of names which is based on associated likeness between two objects:”pancake”, “ball”, “volcano” = “sun”; “silver dust”’ “sequins” = “stars”: “vault”, “blanket”, “veil” = “sky”.

By its structure, metaphor can be simple or sustained. : A sustained metaphor refers to a metaphor that consistently runs through the entire poem and is therefore easily identifiable. Metaphors that are sustained also provide a depth and inner complexity to the poem.

The fog comes in on little cat feet. It sits looking over the harbor and city on silent haunches and then, moves on. - 'Fog' - Carl Sandburg.

“In November a cold, unseen stranger, whom the doctors called Pneumonia, stalked about the colony, touching one here and one there with icy fingers. (O.Henry).

The process of naming reality by means of the language is called nomination. Nomination proceeds from choosing one of the features of the object for the representative of the object. The connection between the chosen feature, which represents the object and the word, is especially vivid in cases of transparent “inner form”. The name of the object can be easily traced to the name of one of its characteristics: “railway”, “chairman”. The semantic structure of a word reflects characteristic features of the piece of reality which it denotes (names). Similarity between real objects or phenomena reflects in the semantic structures of words and it denotes them. Both words possess at least one common semantic component.

Metaphor is expressive because the images of both objects possess similar feature: one of the objects is actually named, and the second supplies its own so-called legal name. This is the name transference, which is based on the similarity of one feature. This feature is common to two different entities. The wider is the gap between the associated objects, the more striking and unexpected, the more expressive is the metaphor.

If a metaphor involves likeness between inanimate and animate objects, we deal with personification. Personification is a trope by which inanimate object or idea is given human characteristic: "the face of London”; “the pain of the ocean”.

Earth felt the wound; and Nature from her seat,

Sighing, through all her works, gave signs of woe. - John Milton

Snow speaks to the people, its falling above in the glooming sunlight. Its white sparkling voice echoes as it falls through the air - Jake

Velvet remembers how it wrapped around me. Keeping me warm on a snowy day. Velvet remembers how it laid softly on my bed. Velvet tells me not to forget it. – Rachael

Metaphor is fresh, original, genuine, when it is first used. It is trite, hackneyed, and stable when it is repeated. In this case, it gradually loses its expressiveness: “leg of a table”; “sunrise”. In such cases it becomes just another entry in the dictionary. Therefore, it serves a very important source of enriching the vocabulary of the language. Metaphor can be expressed by all notional parts of speech. It functions in the sentence as any of its members.

Metonymy is the usage of one word for another that it suggests, as the effect of the cause, the cause for the effect, the sign for the thing signified, the container for the thing contained, the instrument for the action, etc:

He is a man of cloth', which means he belongs to a religious order.

'He writes with a fine hand', means he has a good handwriting.

'We have always remained loyal to the crown', that means the people are loyal to the king or the ruler of their country.

'The pen is mightier than the sword' refers that the power of literary works is greater than military force.

'The House was called to order', refers to the members of the House.

Metonymy, like metaphor, can lose its originality and becomes instrumental in enriching the vocabulary of the language, though a different semantic process creates metonymy. It is based on contiguity (nearness of objects or phenomena). Transference of names in metonymy does not involve a necessity for two different words, which have a common component in their semantic structure. It proceeds from the fact that two objects or phenomena have common grounds of existence in reality. Such words as “cup" and “tea” have no semantic nearness. Nevertheless, the first one may serve the container for the second. So “one more cup” is a conversational cliché. This is the case of metonymy. It was once original but due to long use, it is no more accepted as a fresh stylistic device.

The scope of transference in metonymy is much more limited than that of metaphor, because actual relations between two objects are more limited, than the scope of human imagination when we identify two objects, phenomena, actions. Metonymy is less frequently observed stylistic device, than metaphor.

Synecdoche as one of the types of metonymy is often viewed independently. It is based on the relations between the part and the whole:

His parents bought him a new set of wheels. (new car)

He has many mouths to feed. (to look after many)

White hair. (elderly people)

Give us our daily bread.

It is sure hard to earn a dollar these days.

If I had some wheels I would put on a new thread and ask for Jenny's hand in marriage.