Demographic problems

In the 19^th and the 20^th century the population of the Earth rose sixfold. Since the second half of the 20^th the number of people in the world increased rapidly from 2.5 billion to about 8 billion. The alarming population growth at a rate of almost 2 million a week poses many problems which need serious thought. A lot of scientists, ecologists, thinkers and politicians are worried that "the carrying capacity" of the earth is limited, and wonder how many more people our planet is able to accommodate and feed. Therefore, they point out the urgency of lowering the birth-rate to avoid the worst effects of overpopulation such as catastrophic food shortages, the continuous lowering of living standards and educational opportunities, and the danger of turning the world into a desert because of too rapid an exploitation of the earth's natural resources.

They are especially concerned about the developing countries where the increase in the number of births is fastest. In many African and Asian countries such as Malawi, Niger, Mali, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan, for example, women usually have six or seven children. In India, where there is no social security for the old and where parents must rely on their children after they stop working, the situation is similar. The problem is, however, that these countries are very poor and cannot provide so many people with enough food, education, employment, medical care and economic support. As a result, about one fourth of the world's population nowadays starves, suffers the effects of various diseases, and lives in abysmal conditions and extreme poverty.

For many governments controlling the population is the key element of their domestic policy. In China, for instance, where more than 1.2 billion people live, the authorities intro­duced a draconian rule of allowing one child per couple to limit the size of Chinese families. If the rule is not obeyed, parents face heavy penalties. Since the policy went into effect in 1979, the fertility rate has fallen but the population still grows.

While the developing countries are struggling desperately with the population explosion, the developed ones are facing the opposite situation. Many rich countries such as France, Britain, the U.S.A, Canada, Sweden or West Germany are stuck in a demographic gap, which means that there are more and more old people who are not being replaced by the younger generations as their successors. The fertility rate is falling rapidly because of the current economic and social trends such as the break-up of marriage and family, the increasing importance of education and the widespread employment of women. At the same time, governments have to cope with an increasing number of problems on account of their ageing citizens since they are less useful and not as healthy as the young ones.

To sum up, demographic problems are not easy to solve. It seems that the most important thing is to fill the gap between the developing and developed nations. The example of the latter ones shows that better-educated and richer citizens have smaller families voluntarily. An improvement in the status of women is also an important factor in the lowering of the birth rate. It has been proved that the higher their position in society, the fewer children they want to have. Moreover, the governments of the developing countries should devote their energy to setting up more family-planning centres, educate teenagers at school on the methods of birth control, guarantee better access to contraceptives and promote the idea: "fewer births, greater prosperity".

Text 3.7

Drugs - for and against legalization

Drug-taking brings nothing but misery to addicts and their families, and undoubtedly wrecks many lives. It incurs health risks and often causes death. It also contributes to the spread of crime. In many countries drug markets are flourishing despite tough laws, and the number of both casual and heavy users of most drugs is still rising. Therefore, the question arises whether legalizing drugs would improve the situation or make it worse. To answer this question, it is necessary to investigate both the potential dangers of legalization and the benefits gained from banning drugs.

The opponents of legalization insist that there should be a ban on both the possession and trade of drugs. They claim that the relaxation of the anti-drug laws may have devastating consequences. If drugs were legitimate, they say, the number of drug users would increase for three reasons. Firstly, the price of legalized drugs would certainly be lower than the present price of illegal ones. Nowadays, drugs are expensive because their price reflects the dangers involved in buying and distributing them. Making them legal, and therefore cheaper, would inevitably lead to a rise in taking them. Secondly, access to legalized drugs would be easier. And if drugs were widely available, many more people, including children and teenagers, would certainly experiment with them and become dependent. Thirdly, the social stigma against drug-taking would diminish. Now the risk of seizure and jail deters many potential drug-users. However, if they were no longer afraid of imprisonment or scandal, more of them might try drugs.

The proponents of legalizing drugs have equally convincing arguments. They claim that tough drugs laws can only make the situation worse. Indeed, in many countries attempts to stamp out drugs have had effects more harmful than those of the drugs themselves. Prohibition is therefore not the best way to protect society. Firstly, it encourages the spread of crime and the emergence of powerful gangs which fight each other, threaten the State and corrupt political institutions. Secondly, banning drugs erodes civil liberties. Many people are of the opinion that democratic governments have no right to curtail anyone's freedom and intervene to prevent individuals from using drugs, if no harm is done to the rest of society. Thirdly, anti-drug policies often lead to a rise in drug taking in the same way as Prohibition in the United States in the 1920s led to a rise in the drinking of alcohol. Fourthly, drug dealing is a multibillion dollar source of revenue for the illegal drug business. At the same time, vast sums of money are spent on catching and punishing drug dealers and users. If drugs were legalized, however, much more could be spent for the common good, for example on some prevention activities, drug-treatment schemes and education for the young. What is more, tough policies against drugs endanger public health by making it impossible to regulate the quality of illegally produced drugs and their safe distribution. They also speed up the spread of HIV, and reduce the chance of treating the damage caused to health though overuse.

After having looked at some arguments for and against legalizing drugs, it seems that the benefits of legalization overweigh the risks. Of course there is a danger that the demand for drugs may increase, and drug abuse may also rise. On the other hand, tough drug laws seem not to work at all since drugs, though illegal, are widely available. If the drug market was legal, it could be regulated, and more drug-offenders would be sent for treatment rather than to prison. To sum up, only a legal market can guarantee that drug-taking will be no more dangerous than drinking or smoking.

Text 3.8

Our contaminated world

Cleaning up the world’s environment is undoubtedly one of the major problems facing all the people inhabiting our planet. For many decades this issue has been neglected by many countries and the result is that it is more and more difficult to find any unpolluted place on Earth. Bearing that in mind, it seems obvious that the struggle against contamination and the need to protect the environment have become the most urgent of tasks because air, water and soil are slowly becoming unsuitable to sustain life.

As far as water is concerned, the prognosis is really gloomy. Sewage dumped directly into rivers or to the sea has polluted the water so heavily that many countries, for example China, do not have enough safe drinking water. What is more, in some parts of the world, for instance in Peru, people are at the mercy of contractors who sell the precious liquid for money! This tragic situation is the result of population growth and above all industrial development which have contributed to the depletion and pollution of the world’s water supply, raising the risk of starvation and epidemic. Equally dangerous are very frequent tanker leaks as oil spills make the water in many regions unfit for any use. Whatever the consequences for people, the pollution of water has an even greater effect on other living things. Fish, birds and countless other creatures are poisoned and ecosystems are disrupted. This, in turn, results in the serious violation of the ecological balance.

As far as the contamination of soil is concerned, again mainly industry and agriculture are to blame. One source of pollution are acid rains caused by chemical substances dissolved in rain, which results in polluting water and ruining crops. Another problem is mismanaged farming techniques, or instance the world-wide continuation of irrigation and the misuse or abuse of fertilizers and pesticides which are gradually destroying the fertile upper layer of soil. Deforestation is equally dangerous. It brings about floods and soil erosion during rainy seasons. At the same time the thoughtless and uncontrolled exploitation of forests for timber results in the extinction of many species.

However, it seems that the most dangerous problem for the world is the pollution of the atmosphere. Air is contaminated mainly by the exhaust gases emitted directly into the atmosphere. From year to year man increasingly contributes to the so-called “greenhouse effect” by additional emissions of sulphur, carbon dioxide from burning coal, natural gases and the derivative products of oil as well as from burning forests. This short-sighted policy has resulted in the rapid change of the world’s climate (the effect of “global warming”) due to the depletion of the ozone layer in the atmosphere, the consequences of which may well be disastrous. There is a danger that many places on the planet may be flooded while others will suffer from droughts. Numerous species of animals and plants will become extinct. Instead there may be idea conditions for the development of noxious insects and bacteria. They in turn, may become a source of dangerous infections which may decimate the world’s population. Increasing ultra-violet radiation will bring about the escalation of tumorous illnesses. Polluted air will also be responsible for the frequent birth of retarded children. Furthermore, the natural division between seasons may be disturbed and the warming up of the climate could possibly contribute to the melting of huge icebergs which are of great importance as stabilizers for the planet. This, in turn, may lead to the geological destruction of all the continents.

All these catastrophic ecological possibilities are difficult to count. Constantly developing technology and industry seem to be stronger than the instinct of self-preservation. To decrease the risk of self-destruction it seems necessary to take some forceful steps to clean up the world’s environment or otherwise man has little chance of surviving.

Text 3.9

CLIMATE CRISIS

Holes in the sky

The satellite photographs showed the hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica. The hole is pink and white on the computer photograph. The ozone layer stops some of the ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Ultraviolet radiation causes a suntan. Too much ultraviolet radiation causes sunburn and skin cancer.

CFCs in the atmosphere have caused the hole. Scientists first discovered the hole in 1982, and it is getting bigger. Thirty per cent of CFCs come from aerosol cans, thirty per cent from fridges and air-conditioning, and thirty-four per cent from the manufacture of some plastic products.

The Greenhouse Effect

1. Sunlight gives us heat. Some of the heat warms the atmosphere, and some of the heat escapes back into space.

2. During the last 100 years we have produced a huge amount of carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide in the atmosphere works like the glass in a greenhouse. It allows heat to get in, but it doesn't allow much heat to get out. So the atmosphere becomes warmer because less heat can escape.

Where does the carbon dioxide come from? People and animals breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide. Trees take carbon dioxide from the air, and produce oxygen. We produce carbon dioxide when we burn coal, oil, petrol, gas or wood. In the last few years, people have burned huge areas of rain forest. This means there are fewer trees, and, of course, more carbon dioxide!

A Hotter Earth?

Some scientists think the greenhouse effect will make the world hotter. Areas near the coasts will be cloudier and wetter. There will be more storms. Inland areas will have a little more rain, but because the temperature will be higher, they will be drier. Sea levels will rise. They have already risen by 15 cm since 1880. Maybe they will rise another 30 cm before 2030. But clouds reflect sunlight back into space, and maybe more clouds will make the earth cooler again. Is the world's climate changing? We don't know.

Text 3.10

ACID RAIN

Imagine rainwater more acid than lemon juice! Imagine forests and lakes dying and historical monuments being destroyed by rain. Not just by normal rainwater but by acid rain. Just what is acid rain? Did you know that normal rainwater is already a little acidic? So what makes acid rain different from normal rainwater? Well, the term acid rain actually refers to any form of precipitation, that is, any form of rain or snow that is more acidic than normal rainwater. Let me repeat that definition for you. Acid rain is any form of precipitation that is more acidic than normal rainwater. This definition is rather unscientific. So let me give you another, more scientific way of saying what acid rain is. In scientific terms, acid rain is defined as any form of precipitation, which has a pH of less than 5.5.The term pH is a term used in chemistry to indicate how acid or how alkaline a solution is. If a solution is neither acid nor alkaline, we say that it is a neutral solution and that it has a pH of 7. If a solution has a pH of less than seven, we say the solution is acidic. So you can see that with a pH of 5.5, normal rainwater is already slightly acidic. Ordinary rainwater is slightly acidic because there are some normal gases such as carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is the gas that all animals, including humans exhale. When these gases dissolve in water, they make the water somewhat acidic. So it is perfectly natural that rainwater is a little acidic. But as you heard, today in parts of Europe and North America rainwater is sometimes more acidic than lemon juice.

What causes this rainwater to be so acidic? The most important cause of the excessive acidity of rainwater has been the burning of fossil fuels such as petroleum and coal. Burning fossil fuels produces not only carbon dioxide, but also gases such as nitrogen oxide and sulphur dioxide, which go high into the atmosphere. These gases combine with water molecules and form acid. These acidic water droplets then can travel hundreds of miles before they return to earth as rain or snow.

This will not be an easy problem to solve. As more and more countries become industrialized, there will be more and more competition for petroleum for cars, home heating, and industry. While burning petroleum contributes greatly to acid rain, it is less polluting than coal. Unfortunately, petroleum is more expensive than coal and the supply of petroleum will eventually run out. Therefore, there will be more and more pressure to burn coal for energy. Coal is a much dirtier energy source than petroleum. Since we already know how destructive acid rain is, it's very important that we increase our efforts to find a non-polluting source of energy as quickly as possible, so that we can avoid further environmental damage.

Text 3.11

THE RAINFORESTS: WHY ARE THEY IMPORTANT?

1. Where are the rainforests?

Rainforests cover 6% of the Europe's surface. There are rainforests in many parts of the world but the biggest forests are in South America, Africa and South East Asia. There aren't any rainforests in Europe or North America.

2. What's in the rainforests?

About 75% of all types of animals that we know come from rainfor­ests. Thousands and thousands of animals live in the rainforests. There are many very beautiful birds, insects and reptiles. Many of them live in the trees, over 30 metres from the ground. There are also thousands of differ­ent plants — and lots of tall trees! It is always hot in a rainforest and the ground is always wet. It is also dark.

3. Why are the rainforests important?

The rainforests are very important for us. We need them! The trees and other plants in the forest help to make the air that we breathe. They also help to control the air. They give us wood, rubber, fruits and many of our medicines.

4. What's happening to the rainforests?

Unfortunately, in many places, the rainforests are in danger. For ex­ample, many years ago there was a large rainforest in Java. There were thousands of different plants and animals in the forest, but now there is nothing. People chopped down the trees because they wanted to grow rice. They also planted rubber trees to make rubber. Many animals lived in the rainforest. Some of them went to other parts of Java but many of them disappeared — for ever. The same thing is happening now in many other parts of the world. The rainforests are in danger.

Text 3.12

THE DANGERS OF POLLUTION

The world's oceans are so vast that they can cope with the present levels of pollution. However, little is known about the long-term effects of such slow poisoning. The most serious problem of modern times is that man is destroying the earth's natural resources and transforming huge areas into wasteland. As a result, it is becoming extremely difficult to grow enough to feed the world's rapidly increasing population. A way of protecting all the wildlife on the earth must also be found as many spe­cies are in danger of disappearing completely from the face of the earth. The dangers, however, are not confined solely to the land and the sea. The smoke in the atmosphere, for example, is increasing so much that the amount of sunlight has been reduced in many cities. Man's whole environment is being changed in a serious way.

The most dangerous kind of pollution is air pollution. Air pollution is a cause of ill-health in human beings. In a lot of countries there are laws limiting the amount of smoke which factories can produce. Although there isn't enough information on the effects of smoke in the atmosphere, doctors have proved that air pollution causes lung diseases.

The gases from the exhausts of cars have also increased air pollu­tion in most cities. The lead in petrol produces a poisonous gas which of­ten collect in busy streets surrounded by high buildings. Children who live in areas where there is a lot of lead in the atmosphere cannot think as quickly as other children and are clumsy when they use their hands.

There are other long-term effects of pollution. If the gases in the at­mosphere continue to increase, the earth's climate may become warmer. A lot of the ice near the Poles may melt and may cause serious floods.

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THE EARTH IN CRISIS

We humans now dominate the Earth more than any other species had ever done and the Earth is in grave danger of suffering irreparable harm from our activities. Our demands on its fragile resources are threatening everything from the atmosphere to plant and animal life.

The threat humans pose to the Earth is not new. Even 10,000 years ago, the arrival of hunting people in North America wiped out animal spe­cies like the mammoth. But since the Industrial Revolution began 200 years ago, the threat has grown much bigger, and as economic development gathers pace around the world, it is becoming more and more urgent to find a solution.

The Earth is being damaged in countless ways. Car exhausts and fac­tory chimneys are choking the air. Gases from supersonic jets and refrig­erator factories are punching a hole in the atmosphere's protective ozone layer. Rivers are poisoned by agricultural chemicals. Unique species of animals and plants are vanishing forever. Forests are being felled, vast areas of countryside are being buried under concrete and beautiful marine environments are being destroyed.

At the root of all these problems lies the raging consumption of en­ergy and other resources that started in Europe and America — and is now spreading like a disease all around the world. Many people feel that unless we cure ourselves of this need to consume, we will kill the Earth and ourselves.

Text 3.14

EXTINCTION OF ANIMALS

Many scientists believe that millions more species inhabit our world yet remain unidentified. Some species have become extinct after less than half a million years, while other species have existed almost unchanged for many millions of years. Contrary to popular belief, extinction is a natural process. Based on fossil record, the average rate of extinction has been one species out of every mil­lion per century. However, today experts predict that at least one of every four species may become extinct by 2050.

This worldwide endangerment of animals and plants is a phenomenon of the 20th century. It is a product of the continuing use of more and more natural resources for a constantly growing human population. Thus, many wildlife species become endangered because there is less wild space for them to inhabit.

Unfortunately, we are witnessing a great wave of extinctions. The current rate may be as high as several species per day. Among the species of most concern are those confined or endemic to a single island or group of islands. These "island" territories can also be cave systems, parks, and reserves that people have created.

When species are isolated, they are vulnerable to environmental changes and natural catastrophes. These are not the only causes of endangerment to species. Hunting and air, water, and land pollution are also responsible for reducing species numbers. So, directly or indirectly, species are becoming threatened because of increasing human population.

From the earliest times, hunters have caused the extinc­tion of species. From the Stone Age up to the 18th cen­tury, mainly large animals were hunted to extinction. But with the invention of guns, hunters targeted small­er animals and birds. This accelerated the rate of extinction, especially of birds.

Today, in theory, hunting is regulated in most countries, however, it remains a major threat to the sur­vival of many birds and animals. Commercial hunting for ivory, skins, and other products continues to cause the extinction of species. In the 21st century, scientists predict that plant species, such as rare orchids and cacti, will become endangered from hunting and col­lecting.

Over many years, hundreds of pesticides and other chemicals have run into rivers and accumulated in the soil. This threatens the animal species that feed on plants and other animals. Equally dangerous are the "ghost" nets—discarded or lost fishing nets—that drift in the oceans, trapping and killing fish, seabirds, seals, dolphins, and turtles. Furthermore, industrial gases trapped in the atmosphere pollute the air and cause global warming, changing the environments of species.

Habitat destruction threatens the greatest number of species. Because people need food and shelter, the envi­ronments of many species are being eliminated or reduced. In many places, people are turning forests into farmland. Since the early 1990s, some 12 million hectares of tropical forests have been cleared every year. At this rate within 40 years all remaining tropical forests will disappear. In a worse case scenario, it is esti­mated that by 2010, the area of tropical forests in Asia, West and East Africa, and Central and South America will be almost depleted.

To preserve our present environment and to bring back species on the verge of extinction requires more commitment and money. Fortunately, conservationists are using the Internet and television to educate and inform people about environmental issues.

Several arguments encourage people and countries to adopt conservation methods and pass laws to pro­tect the environment. One point is that plants and animals enhance our world and our environments. Shady trees, colorful butterflies, and singing birds are only a few species that add to the quality of our envi­ronments. Second, plants and animals are useful to people. Many plants are medicinal, and some insects protect crops. A third argument is that our survival depends upon a healthy global ecosystem. Without clean air and water, people are more vulnerable to life-threatening diseases.

Whichever argument we use for conserving the environment, one fact is certain: the present rate of destruction cannot continue without the eventual col­lapse of ecosystems and human populations. Species are as threatened as we are by population growth, pol­lution, and conflicts over the limited resources.

Text 3.15