Infinitive

1. If the forces have no tendency to increase or decrease the displacement, the body is considered to be in equilibrium.

2. The number of protons was assumed to be sufficient to account for the atomic weight.

3. We know the velocity of a particle to be continuously changing if this particle has non-uniform motion.

4. The acceleration of an automobile is said to be positive when force is supplied by the motor to speed up the car.

5. One of the most important things for the pilot to know is how high he is flying.

6. For a system of forces to be in equilibrium, each force must be the equilibrant of the system.

7. It is essential for the operators to be screened behind lead baffles and tanks of water which absorb the neutrons produced.

8. As the forces are balanced there will be no tendency for the vessel to move.

9. There is a natural tendency for all carburetors to give an increasingly rich mixture as engine speed and altitude increase.

10. If the valve in the cylinder appears to move too easily, it should be replaced immediately.

11. Suppose a given number of electrons to make their way between the ions of a copper wire.

12. The chief reason for the use of such bearings in machinery is to reduce wear and to simplify lubrication problems.

13. .The most common alternating current for lighting and power purposes is assumed to go through 50 cycles in 1second.

14. .Heat absorbed by a liquid causes the liquid to evaporate.

15. We want you to take into consideration that voltage, resistance and capacity are the three important properties to influence the flow of current in an electric circuit.

16. To cut down the flow of water in a given pipe you need only to shut off a valve in that pipe.

17. To charge an object by induction one should hold a charged body at some distance near the object to be charged.

18. .We know copper to be distinguished by its red colour from all other metals.

19. Attempts to add copper and zinc in alloys for the production of sheet metal are known to have been at first unsuccessful because of the poor corrosion resistance of such sheets.

20. In that experiment the steam pipes are known to have been covered to reduce heat losses.

21. The natural tendency of heat to flow from a higher to a lower temperature makes it possible for a heat engine to transform heat into work.

Subjunctive mood

1. So that an electric current may flow through a circuit, it is necessary that there should be an electro-motive force acting in the circuit.

2. Were there no loss of energy by friction, the motion would continue indefinitely once it had been started.

3. If the core were solid, it would form a closed path of very low electrical resistance, so that heavy parasitic currents, called eddy currents, would be set up in it.

4. He proposed that this fact be used to define a temperature scale which would be independent of the properties of any particular substance.

5. It is theoretically possible that a part of the nuclear energy might be liberated by transforming either the lightest or the heaviest of the elements into others of medium weight.

6. Potential in a point is equal to the work that would be required for transferring the unit charge from infinity to this given point.

7. Mendeleyev found it necessary to alter some atomic weights in order that the elements should fall into positions in the periodic system assigned to them by their chemical properties.

8. These experiments show that when a number of forces are exerted on a body at the same time, each force acts independently of the others and produces the same acceleration as if it alone were present.

9. As an added safety precaution it is suggested that a typewritten check list be installed on the instrument panel of each airplane.

10. If the plates are charged plus and minus, the crystal acts as if it were being compressed by a great pressure.

Multifunctional words

1. Almost all universal motors are of the series type and operate on either direct or alternating current.

2. For all heating and lighting purposes, the two-phase system can be considered as two single-phase systems either of which may be used separately.

3. Radio transmitters will use but one carrier frequency at a time for transmission.

4. Such machines also can be used to supply direct currents from alternating currents, but this is usually done with a rectifier.

5. A two-winding transformer is known to consist of two coils so arranged that the magnetic lines of force of one coil pass through the other one.

6. Radiomen know well that alternating current is the very current that makes radio possible.

7. We know that the electrical system in an automobile and an airplane uses direct current as does also the telegraph.

8. In many instances it is necessary to consider the rate at which work is done as well as the total amount of work accomplished.

9. The processes above involve a change in either the magnitude or the direction of the velocity of the body.

10. Both momentum and impulse, unlike energy and work, are vector quantities.

11. In making up a condenser one has to take into consideration its size, as the amount of charge that a condenser stores, of course, depends on its size.

12. But for the ohms, amperes, volts, and watts the electric measurements would be impossible.

13. One should know that the ohm is the unit of resistance.

14. The higher the compression ratio, the larger the proportion of the heat energy of combustion turned into effective work at the crankshaft, other things being equal.

15. Rigidity in aeroplane structure is almost as essential as strength, for excessive deflection or bending under load may lead to a loss of control, with very serious consequence.

16. The generator cannot begin producing current until its field is generated, but its field, in its turn, depends upon the current that is produced.

17. No flow of water occurs unless there is a difference in pressure, and the greater the difference in pressure the greater the flow.

18. Neither a voltmeter pointer nor that of an ammeter can swing rapidly enough to follow the rise and fall of the current or voltage cycle.

19. In other words, as far as the motion of its centre of mass is concerned, a body of any shape acted on by any number of forces, can be replaced by a point mass at its centre of mass and all of the forces on it can be considered to act at this point.

20. The more easily the electrons can be displaced the less will be the resistance, and the higher the temperature the greater will be the number of current carriers.

21. Inductance is a property of a circuit, just as is resistance, and is therefore possessed by d. c. as well as a. c. circuits.

22. The average value taken throughout a complete cycle is equal to zero, as there is as much current flowing in one direction as there is flowing in the other direction.

Unit 3. PRECISION INFORMATION. TRANSLATION NOTATION

Scientific measurements

H₂O, 12°C, sg, eg, cm, kW, mm, log, sin, cos, (x), dx, Cl, N, Na, He, Zn, lb, mi, yr, in.

Latin abbreviations

CV, e.g., i.e., etc, p.m., a.m., PS, NB, op., cit, vs/v/, vers., v.v., cf., et al, con, c, ibid, sic, QED (quod erat demonstrandum).

Symbols / translation notation

	gives, produces, leads to, results in, is rewritten, converted into
	PV, is given by, produced by, results from
	rises, increases by, grows to / by
	falls, decreases, declines
	therefore, so
: :	because, since, as, proportion
@	at
:	examples, following, ratio sign, to say, claim, speak
( )	explanation
‘	minutes, feet
“	inches, ditto (i.e. repeat the word above)
	square root out of
	infinity
	right angle
	perpendicular to
	integral
	future
	past
OK	approve, support
OK	be against

Precision information (PI)

Numerical Literal

figures, dates, indices, terms, names, trademarks,

numbers, chemical symbols, proper names, brands, PR

physical / mathematical support, realia (sociocultural

formulae, etc. words)

To translate Precision Information, you should write it down. If you missed some figures you should use semantic context.

Productivity rose by more than 30% (instead of 32, 3%)

Some 200 clinics were built (instead of 207).

If you fail to note down all figures in a series of numbers, don't worry unduly. What really matters is the order of magnitude. If the treasurer says, "Revenues have gone up from $18,731.55 in 2001 to $20,003.41 in 2002", you will convey this message well enough if you translate it as "Доходы увеличились более, чем на 1000$ в прошлом году."

You shouldn't change Russian proper names for English equivalents. "Nicholas Petrov" or "Маргарита Тетчерова" do not exist. Learn realia and common abbreviations.

PI is less difficult in writing, and more difficult in interpretation.

Always add something new from PI to your basic information/erudition/background knowledge (objective to subjective).

Remember: Terms + PI + Cliché = Business Style

Unit 4.GRAFS DISCRIPTION.ОПИСАНИЕ ГРАФИКОВ

Этапы описания графиков:

1) овладение общей лексикой для описания тенденций графиков, таблиц, схем;

2) языковыми клише (sentence patterns), используемыми для описания графиков, а также порядком их описания;

3) ознакомление с графиком и обсуждение информации, сообщающейся в нем, а также задания к графику;

4) устное описание графика. Необходимо обращать внимание на четкую формулировку темы графика (the subject). Тема графика (таблицы, схемы) содержится в самом названии или последующем комментарии;

5) письменное описание графика;

6) введение ограничений по времени и объему. Довольно часто студент может описать график, но не укладывается во временные рамки и требования к объему описания;

7) проверка с последующим обсуждением ошибок. На начальном этапе основное внимание направлено на проверку правильного использования языковых клише, структуры описания и соблюдение требований по времени и объему описания. В случае множественных грамматических и лексических ошибок следует выполнить соответствующие упражнения. Время, потраченное на такую работу на начальном этапе, окупится позднее, так как постоянное повторение ошибок все равно потребует определенной тренировки в дальнейшем.

Для того чтобы понять график, студент должен ответить на следующие вопросы:

• Что является предметом графика?

• Какие величины представлены на горизонтальной и вертикальной осях?

• Какую тенденцию или модель выявляет график?

• Какие предположения или выводы можно сделать после анализа графика ?

Предлагаем возможные выражения, как правило, используемые для описания графиков, но не являющиеся обязательными. Графики можно описывать и в свободной форме.

Useful expressions:

The graph shows... — График демонстрирует...

The subject of the graph is... — Предметом графика является...

The format clearly illustrates the subject... — Графическое изображение ясно иллюстрирует предмет графика...

The horizontal axis represents... —На горизонтальной оси показаны...

The vertical axis represents... — На вертикальной оси указаны…

The line on the graph illustrates the relationship between... and... — Кривая графика демонстрирует соотношение между... и...

The trend/pattern revealed by this graph is... — Тенденция/модель, просматриваемая на графике, свидетельствует о том, что...

One of the trends/patterns that becomes clear from this graph is... — Одна из тенденций, ясных из изучения графика, в том, что...

If this trend holds... — Если эта тенденция сохранится...

By studying this graph we can predict that... — Изучив тот график, мы можем предсказать, что...

What are some of the implications evident from studying this graph? — Какие выводы становятся очевидными после изучения этого графика?

One is — один; another is — другой….

In conclusion... — В заключение...

Далее предлагаем ряд глаголов, описывающих изменение величин на графике в прошлом:

Increased gradually, sharply — увеличилось постепенно;

Rose slowly, rapidly — росло медленно, быстро;

Climbed minimally, dramatically — поднималось (росло), драматически (резко, значительно);

Shot up - возросло резко, значительно возросло;

Soared, rocketed — стремительно возросло;

Slumped — резко упало;

Plummeted — стремительно упало;

Dropped sharply, slightly — упало резко, незначительно;

Fell rapidly, gradually — упало быстро, постепенно;

Declined dramatically, slowly — снизилось значительно (поразительно, драматично), медленно;

Stabilized — стабилизировалось;

Leveled off — выровнялось;

Remained constant — оставалось постоянным.

Для описания событий в будущем могут быть полезными следующие выражения:

Is projected to raise sharply — предполагается резкое возрастание;

Is forecast to drop slightly — прогнозируется незначительное падение;

Is expected to fall dramatically — ожидается значительное падение;

Is predicted to decline steadily — предсказывается уверенное снижение.

Примерный план описания графика

1. Вводное предложение.

2. Пример из графика.

3. Комментарий по поводу прослеживающейся тенденции.

4. Следующий пример.

5. Комментарий к нему.

6. Возможный следующий пример.

7. Комментарий.

8. Вывод (вывод можно не делать, это не обязательно, но какое-то заключительное предложение необходимо).

Пример описания графика (Fig. 1).

Growth of the population of the United States of America from 1790 to 1980, with an estimate of continued growth to 2050. (Based on figures from theU.S. Bureau of the Census.)

Полное описание графика выглядит следующим образом:

This graph shows the growth of the population of the United from 1790 to 1980 and estimates growth to 2050. The horizontal axis represents years in fifty-year intervals. The vertical axis represents the population in units of 100 million. The trend revealed by this graph is that the population of the United States began to increase dramatically around 1850 and continued to accelerate through 1980. If this trend holds, the populations of the United States will double itself between 1980 and 2050.

Fig. 1. Growth of the population of the USA

Описание линейных графиков

При описании линейных графиков следует рассматривать важные тенденции или модели. Следующие шаги помогут вам в выполнении этого письменного задания.

Fig. 2. Energy demand and energy available In Freedonia

Пример описаний линейного графика

Figure 2 shows the relationship between demand for energy find the energy available from fossil fuels in Freedonia since 1985 and gives projections to the year 2005. The energy in the graph is measured in units each of which is equivalent to 100 billion mega joules.

The demand for energy dropped steadily between 1985 and 1990 from 5 units of energy to approximately 2 units. From 1990, energy demand appeared to level off and remained constant at about 2 units of energy. From this time onwards, energy demand climbed dramatically from 2 units of energy in 1996 and is projected to reach 7 units in the year 2005. Furthermore, the forecast is for energy demand to continue to rise in the future.

In contrast, the amount of energy available from fossil fuels increased quite rapidly from about 3.5 units in 1985 until it reached a peak of 6.5 in 1995. From this point onwards it is projected to decline dramatically until it remains constant at an availability f level of around 2.5 units from the year 2000.

The energy demand and energy available from fossil fuels resulted in an excess amount of energy available in the 1990s in Freedonia which, perhaps, was due to the availability of alternative sources of energy. On the other hand, an energy gap that continues to widen is forecast, beginning in the late 1990s. In the future, Freedonians will have to enforce energy saving measures or look towards the use of alternative sources of energy. (Approximately 220 words.)

Unit 5. CLASSES OF TECHNICAL LITERATURE

Among these are scientific and technical reports, professional articles, textbooks, technical description, instruction manuals, patent applications, license agreements, test specifications, advertising leaflets, etc.

Scientific texts serve to transferring cognitive information. There are many linguistic means that facilitate its rendering as objective info: subject semantics, impersonal constructions and Passive Voice, predominance of Present Simple, nominative constructions (nouns in attributive groups, verbal nouns and gerunds), terms. Terms are abundant in Technical English, and they must be translated by permanent equivalents, nonsensitive to the context.

A translator must not necessarily be capable of operating a crane. If this is his field of temporary activity, however, he should know the operating principle and should be able to tell which of the crane parts revolve, rotate, traverse, swivel or slew - the wrong word will show incompetence.

To do an appropriate translation of a special text, it is essential not only to find correct terms, but also to connect them with the verbs in a proper manner.

the current flows . to emit...

the voltage is applied to authorize ...

the magnetic field is set up to execute ...

the line is terminated the message ...

the switch closed the mouse ...

the smoke screen is laid the buttons / icons are.

the functions are performed the force is...

Collocations generally obey the rules of grammar, but sometimes usage often takes precedence over grammar. Thus, transformations are made.

Под сопряжением понимается техническое средство, осуществляющее связь между системами - An interface may be a hardware component used to link two systems.

Имеется в виду другой подход к поставленной задаче - What is implied is a different approach to the task (in hand).

Different people use different grammatical modes for instructions:

Russian: Infinitive (Снять крышку);

German: Passive Voice;

British English: imperative (Remove the cover);

American English: Passive infinitive (The cover is to be removed).

Titles are the source of trouble. The general rule is to translate them after the text. Take the title "Ratiotrans", for example. For sales abroad it seems useful to define the meaning, namely, variable-ratio voltage transformer, - and then to translate this term. Meaningless titles are encountered far too often.

A translator working in advertising needs caution and accuracy. When in one and the same booklet he/she uses first power supply, then generator, dynamo, then all of a sudden power pack and finally supply system, the customer may place his booklet into his waste basket.

Logical structure of the scientifical/technical text is achieved by means of semantic and formal cohesion. They are many: conjunctions, adverbs, demonstrative pronouns. If you fail to find equivalents for them in the Target Language, you will change the logical structure of the text for the associative one.

Find equivalents for: итак, ибо, тем не менее, тем самым, кроме этого, впрочем, далее.

There exists a great variety of complicated syntactical structures in Scientific English that should be retained or transformed properly.

It is imperative that the solution be filtered.

Knowledge principle states that a system exhibits intelligепсе in part due to the specific knowledge relevant to the task that it contains.

Exercises