
- •Передмова
- •Contents:
- •I. Language and Extralinguistic World
- •II. Language as a Means of Communication
- •III. Translation Definitions
- •IV. Translation Varieties
- •It is possible to mark out the following problems of translation:
- •It is acceptable to define several essential measures that are accomplished by using the consecutive translation:
- •In comparison with the synchronous translation several advantages of the consecutive translation can be outlined:
- •In practice there are three varieties of simultaneous translation, that are related to to different types of translation:
- •In comparison with the consecutive translation such the advantages of the simultaneous translation can be named:
- •V. Basic Theories of Translation
- •VI. Stylization in the Process of Translation
- •VII. Stylistic Devices of Translation
- •The name of people is substituted by the name of a city or country:
- •VIII. Lexical Devices of Translation
- •Word-building:
- •Borrowings from the other languages.
- •Substitution that is dictated by social rules and substitution by Phraseological units.
- •IX. Transformations in translation
- •I.1. Transpositions.
- •I.2. Replacements.
- •II.1. Specification.
- •II.2. Generalization.
- •II.3. The method of lexical addition.
- •II.4. The method of omission.
- •II.5. The method of semantic development.
- •II.6. The method of integral transformation.
- •II.7. The method of compensation.
- •X. Translation of Phraseological Units
- •From Greek mythology:
- •4. From the contemporary literary or historical source relating to different languages (mainly to French, Spanish, Danish, German, Italian, Arabic):
- •XII. Translation of Proverbs and Sayings
- •XIII. Translation of Nationally Biased Lexicon
- •In the plane of one language:
- •In the plane of two languages:
- •1) On the character of text.
- •2) On importance of the nationally biased lexicon in a context.
- •3) On the character of the nationally biased lexicon.
- •4) On the source language or the target one.
- •5) On a reader of translation.
- •XIV. Literary Translation
- •XV. Translation of Poetry
- •Whether ‘tis nobler in the mind to suffer
- •W. Shakespeare «Sonnet lxvi».
- •Я кличу смерть – дивитися набридло
- •Я кличу смерть, нестерпне вже буття,
- •Озимандіас
- •Озимандія
- •Озимандія
- •Bibliography:
Word-building:
Conversion.
For example:
Water (n) – (to) water (v) (вода (іменник) – поливати (дієслово)) etc.
Shorting.
For example:
Vet – veterinary surgeon, veterinarian (ветеринар, ветеринарний лікар, ветеринарний) etc.
Borrowings from the other languages.
For example:
To ask (Anglo-Saxon) – запитувати;
To question (French) – запитувати, задавати питання;
To interrogate (Latin) – запитувати, довідуватися etc.
Substitution that is dictated by social rules and substitution by Phraseological units.
For example:
To be in one’s birthday suit – Бути в костюмі Адама і Єви; бути в чому мати народила (голим) etc.
If the word is polysemantic it is possible to find out a synonym to each of the meanings.
For example:
Fresh air (свіже повітря) – cool air (прохолодне повітря);
Fresh thought (свіжа думка) – new thought (нова думка);
Fresh face (свіже обличчя) –familiar face (знайоме обличчя);
Fresh cabbage (свіжа капуста) – green cabbage (зелена капуста);
Fresh bread (свіжий хліб) – soft aromatic bread (м’який, запашний хліб);
Fresh newspaper (свіжа газета) – today’s newspaper (сьогоднішня газета) etc.
-
II. Antonyms:
Antonyms are words of the same language, the same part of speech and the same semantic field, which are identical in style and express contradictory or contrary notions. |
For example:
Life (життя) – death (смерть);
Truth (правда) – lie (брехня);
Day (день) – night (ніч);
Good (добро) – evil (зло);
Big (великий) – small (малий);
White (білий) – black (чорний) etc.
-
Antonyms are classified into:
I. Root and derivational antonyms according to the morphological structure. |
1. Root-antonyms are formed from the different roots, for example:
Far (далеко) – near (близько);
Tall (високий) – low (низький);
Strong (сильний) – weak (слабкий) etc.
2. Derivational antonyms are formed from the same root with the help of negative affixes, for example:
Agree (погоджуватись) – disagree (розходитися у поглядах; протирічити одне одному);
Happy (щасливий) – unhappy (нещасливий);
Helpless (безпомічний) – helpful (корисний);
Logical (логічний) – illogical (нелогічний; непослідовний);
Оrientation (орієнтація; орієнтування) – disorientation (дезорієнтація) etc.
II. Contextual antonyms. |
Contextual antonyms are the words that are opposite in a certain context and are not antonyms outside it.
For example:
Some people have much to live on but little to live for – Дехто має вдосталь грошей для життя, та не має задля кого жити.
According to the semantic factor antonyms are classified on the base of distinguishing feature between two varieties of opposition: |
Contrary opposition.
Its essence lies in the fact that two opposite notions, between which there can be added one or several opposing members, express it:
For example:
Hot – (lukewarm – warm – not warm, not cold – chilly) – cold etc.
(Гарячий – (теплуватий – теплий – ні теплий, ні холодний – прохолодний) – холодний та ін).
Young – (not young – not young, not old – middle age – elderly – oldish) – old etc.
(Молодий – (немолодий – ні молодий, ні старий – середнього віку – похилого віку – старуватий) – старий та ін).
Complementary opposition.
It is based on the relationships between notions, which are not characterized by the opposing members.
For example:
Life (життя) – death (смерть);
Good (добро) – evil (зло);
Man (чоловік) – woman (жінка);
Minus (мінус) – plus (плюс) etc.
In English a lot of words have synonyms and not many have antonyms.
-
Usually the following groups of words have antonyms:
Qualitative adjectives.
For example:
Sad (сумний) – glad (веселий, радісний);
Сlever (розумний) – stupid (дурний) etc.
Words denoting feeling and emotions.
For example:
Love (любов) – hate (ненависть);
Hope (надія) – despair (відчай) etc.
Words denoting position in time and space.
For example:
Far (далеко) – near (близько);
Early (рано) – late (пізно);
Day (день) – night (ніч) etc.
Words denoting direction.
For example:
Right (право) – left (ліво);
Here (тут) – there (там) etc.
Polysemantic words may have different antonyms when they are used in the different meanings.
For example:
Fresh air (свіже повітря) – warm, torrid air (тепле, спекотне повітря);
Fresh face (свіже обличчя) – familiar, pale face (знайоме, бліде обличчя);
Fresh cabbage (свіжа капуста) – pickled, sour cabbage (солена, кисла капуста);
Fresh bread (свіжий хліб) – stale, hard dry bread (несвіжий, черствий, сухий хліб);
Fresh newspaper (свіжа газета) – yesterday’s, old newspaper (вчорашня, стара газета);
Fresh thought (свіжа думка) – yesterday’s, old, traditional thought (вчорашня, стара, традиційна думка) etc.
The lexical device of artistic expressiveness called oxymoron (means phrase which unite two opposite words to show discrepancy of things which are described) is based on the phenomenon of antonymy.
For example:
Hot snow (гарячий сніг);
Bitter happiness (гірке щастя) etc.
-
III. Homonyms:
Homonyms are words identical in sound and spelling or at least in one of these aspects, but different in their meaning and usage. |
For example:
Ball (куля, м’яч, бал), bow (уклін, ніс корабля), goal (мета, задача, гол), date (дата, число, день, побачення, фінік) etc.
-
Homonyms are classified into:
Homonyms proper – words identical in pronunciation and spelling but different in their meaning.
For example:
Bank (берег ріки; банк);
Race (раса, гонки, заїзд, заплив, забіг) etc.
Homophones – words identical in sound form but different in spelling and meaning.
For example:
I (я) – eye (око);
Buy (купувати) – by (у, при, поряд, біля);
Air (повітря) – heir (спадкоємець);
Knight (лицар) – night (ніч) etc.
Homographs – words identical in spelling, but different in pronunciation and meaning.
For example:
Row [rou] (ряд, лінія)– row [rau] (гребля);
Lead [li:d] (лідерство, керування) – lead [led] (свинець);
Bow [bou] (лук (зброя)) – bow [bau] (уклін);
Wind [wind] (вітер) – wind [waind] (виток, завиток, поворот) etc.
Also homonyms are classified on the base of belonging homonym words to the different parts of speech: |
Lexical homonyms (if homonym words belong to the same part of speech).
For example:
Ball (куля, бал), bank (банк, берег ріки) etc.
Lexico-grammatical homonyms (if homonym words belong to the different parts of speech).
For example:
(To) lead (вести, лідерство, свинець);
(To) right (правий, потрібний, право, права сторона) etc.
There are several sources of homonyms: |
Phonetic changes.
For example:
Night (ніч) – knight (лицар) etc.
Borrowings.
For example:
Bank (берег ріки – банк) etc.
Word-building:
Conversion.
For example:
Ring (дзвінок) – to ring (дзвонити);
Plan (план) – to plan (планувати);
Work (робота) – to work (працювати);
Water (вода) – to water (поливати) etc.
Shorting.
For example:
Doc (док) – doctor (лікар, доктор);
Fridge – refrigerator (холодильник) etc.
Sound-imitation.
For example:
To bang (захлопувати з шумом);
To clap (хлопати, аплодувати);
To giggle (реготати), to whisper (шепотіти) etc.
Of course, using any of the given lexical devices depends on the style of a text translated. They must be reasonably used to fully and faithfully convey the idea and content of the source language text.