General Classifications of Legal Subjects

Pre-reading task: Read the introductory text giving you the general idea on the classification of legal subjects. Draw the diagram.

One means of classifying the law is to divide it into matters of public law and matters of private law. Public law includes constitutional law, administrative law, and criminal law. Public law provides a major portion of the legal environment of business. Private law encompasses those legal problems and relationships which exist between individuals, as contrasted with those in which society is involved. Private law is traditionally separated into the law of contracts, the law of torts, and the law of property.

Another important classification or distinction in law is the one between substance and procedure. Substantive law defines the legal relationship of people with other people, or as between them and the state. Procedural law deals with the method and means by which substantive law is made and administered. In other words, substantive rules of law define rights and duties, while procedural rules of law provide the machinery for enforcing those rights and duties.

Every social institution has rules by which it conducts its affairs or “proceeds.” There are rules of law relating to legislative procedure which govern the steps that must be taken for a statute to be valid. Judicial procedures involve the method of conducting lawsuits, appeals, and the enforcement of judgements. The rules for conducting civil trials are different from those for criminal trials. For example, each party may call the other party to the witness stand for cross-examination in a civil trial, but the defendant may not be required to testify in a criminal case. Procedural problems sometimes arise concerning papers filed in lawsuits, the admission of evidence, and various other techniques involved in trying the case. A classification similar to that of public versus private contrasts civil law cases with criminal cases. For administrative purposes courts usually separate criminal actions from other lawsuits, with the latter known as civil cases.

Ex. 16.

Find terms for the given definitions in the text.

1. the branch of law that deals with relations between a state and its individual members;

2. the branch of law that deals with the rights and duties of private individuals and the relations between them;

3. the branch of law that deals with the acts committed against the law which are punished by the state;

4. the branch of law that deals with the constitution or government of the state, or relationship between state and citizens;

5. rules which determine how a case is administered by the courts;

6. common law and statute law used by the courts in making decisions

Ex. 17.

Find the synonyms in the text:

Include, agreement, difference, law, legally acceptable, accused, give evidence, aims.

Ex. 18.

Make the derivatives:

verb	noun	adjective	adverb
classify	classification	classifiable	-------
constitute
represent
govern
fulfill
proceed
enforce
testify
conduct
legislate

Ex. 19.

Answer the questions

1. What does public law include?

2. What are the duties of the governmental agencies?

3. What problems does private law deal with?

4. What are the components of private law?

5. What does substantive law deal with?

6. What do judicial procedures involve?

7. Are the rules for conducting civil trials different from the criminal ones?

Ex. 20.

Finish the sentences:

1. The interests of the people are represented…..

2. Public law deals with…

3. Private law deals…

4. Substantive law…

5. Procedural law..

6. Judicial procedures involve…

7. Procedural problems arise…

8. For administrative purposes…

Ex. 21 Make summary of the text 3. Use these phrases :

Useful phrases

I’ll give a review of the text. The title of the article is … The text is devoted to … At the beginning of the text … The text says (describes, underlines, stresses) that … The text goes on to say … It is interesting to note … At the end of the article … In conclusion the author writes …

Grammar focus: Past perfect tense REVISION

I, we, they, you he, she, it

had+

Participle 2 gone seen finished

Ex. 21. Use the Past Perfect Tense.

Model: Why didn’t you listen to that play on the radio? a) Because I had heard it before. b) / didn’t listen to that play on the radio, because I had heard it before.

1. Why didn’t you see Fred when you came to Moscow? (leave)

2. Why didn’t Kate want to go to the cinema? (see the film)

3. Why didn’t you tell him my new address? (forget)

4. Why didn’t Jeff hear about Kate’s examination? (pass)

5. Why did Fred come home so soon from his holiday? (spend all the money)

Ex. 22. Complete the sentences, using the verb in brackets.

Model: I was very excited about visiting London because I (be) had never been there before.

1. The little boy couldn ’t wait to get to the sea. (see) He_______________________ before.

2. The lecture was late that morning. The class didn’t know what to think, (be/late) He________________________________________________________________

3. Yesterday Larry taught Nell to play the guitar. She felt very unsure because she (play)

4. It was Miss Kelly’s first day at court. She was very nervous because she (testify).

Ex. 23. Make sentences using the words in brackets.

Model: His hair was wet. (He/just/have/a shower) He had just had a shower.

1. There was nobody in the courtroom, (the judge/just/leave)

2. We didn’t find anybody at home, (everybody/already/go out)

3. Bob wasn’t at home when I arrived, (he/arrange/to meet/his lawyer/in the cafe)

4. I couldn’t recognize the child after all that time. (I/not/see/her/for seven years)

Ex. 24. Put the verb into the correct form, the Past Perfect or the Past Simple.

Model: Was Father at home when I phoned? - No. he had already left. Was Father at home when I phoned? - Yes, but he left soon afterwards.

1. The flat was empty when he arrived. Everybody____________________ (go) to the party.

2. There were voices heard from the kitchen, so I. ___________________ (go) straight there.

3. He cannot take part in the competition. He ________________ (break) his leg yesterday.

4. There was an accident at the mountain top. Some skier_____________________ (break) his leg and the ambulance men were carrying him to the road. So we__________________ (stop) to let them pass.

Ex. 25. Use the Past Perfect Tense of the verbs given in brackets to complete the sentences.

Model: When John and I got to the river, the boat race (start already) had already started.

1. When she went to bed, she remembered that she (not/switch off the light)______________

2. She felt tired because she (walk a lot/that day)______________________

3. She went for a holiday after she (pass the exams) ___________________

4. I didn’t know what to do when they (show/me/the photo of the suspect)____________

5. He didn’t start speaking until the witnesses (leave/the room)______________

6. When I met Helen, I understood why Bill (marry her)__________________

7. He understood the book only after he (read it/again)__________________

Ex. 26. Unite the following pairs of sentences. Use the conjunctions after, as soon as, before, until, till, when.

Model: a) They went to England. They graduated from university, (after) They went to England after they had graduated from the university, b) The sun set. They finished their work, (before) The sun had set before they finished their work.

1. I understood the problem. He explained, (as soon as)

2. She wrote the letter. She went to the post office, (after)

3. I drove to the airport. The plane took off. (when)

4. She read the message carefully. She wrote the reply, (before)

5. The man didn’t leave. He didn’t receive a definite answer, (till)

6. We didn’t say a word. He finished his story, (until)

7. John worked as a clerk. He began to study law, (before).

Grammar focus: Future perfect tense

I, we	Shall +	Have+	Participle 2 gone done translated
they, you he, she, it	Will+

Ex.27. Turn the following into the Future Perfect.

Model: I had done my homework by 9 о 'clock. I shall have done my homework by 9 о 'clock.

1. They had built the new school by the first of September. ___________________________.

2. The teacher had looked through our exercise-books by that time. _____________________.

3. We had discussed the report by four o'clock in the afternoon. __________________________.

4. The students had read three English books by the end of the year. _________________________.

5. I had written the composition by 9 o'clock. ____________________________.

Ex. 28. Replace the infinitives in brackets by the Future Indefinite or the Future Perfect.

Model: He will receive (to receive) the telegram tomorrow.

1. I _____________ (to do) the exercises by seven o'clock.

2. I _____________ (to do) the exercises in the afternoon.

3. By this time you _____________ (to take your examination).

4. You _____________ (to take) your examination next week.

5. The teacher _____________ (to correct) our dictations in the evening.

6. The teacher _____________ (to correct) our dictations by the next lesson.

Ex. 29. Put the verb into the correct form, the Future Continuous or the Future Perfect (will be (do)ing) or (will have (done)).

Model: Don't phone me between 7 and 8. We'll be having (we/have) dinner then.

1. Phone me after 8 o'clock. _____________ (we/finish) dinner by then.

2. Tomorrow afternoon we're going to play tennis from 3 o'clock until 4.30. So at 4 o'clock, _____________ (we/play) tennis.

3. A: Can we meet tomorrow afternoon?

B: Not in the afternoon. _____________ (I/work).

4. В has to go to a meeting which begins at 10 o'clock. It will last about an hour. A: Will you be free at 11.30?

B: Yes, _____________ (the meeting/finish) by that time.

5. Chuck came to Britain from the USA nearly three years ago. Next Monday it will be exactly three years. So on Monday, _____________ (he/be) in Britain for exactly three years.

6. Do you think _____________ (you/still/do) the same job in ten years' time?

7. Jane is from New Zealand. She is travelling around Europe at the moment. So far she has travelled about 1,000 miles. By the end of the trip, _____________ (she/travel) more than 3,000 miles.

Grammar focus: SEQUENCE OF TENSES

	PRESENT	PAST	FUTURE
SIMPLE	V1	V2	WILL
PERFECT	HAVE+V3	HAD+V3	Future in the past WOULD
CONTINUOUS	IS+Ving	WAS+Ving

Ex.30 Yesterday you met Charlie. Here are some of the things Charlie said to you:

1. I’m living in London now.

2. My father isn’t very well.

3. Sharon and Paul are getting married next month.

4. Margaret has had a baby.

5. I don’t know what Fred is doing.

6. I saw Helen at a party in June and she seemed fine.

7. I haven’t seen Diane recently.

8. I’m not enjoying my job very much.

9. You can come and stay at my flat if you are ever in London.

10. My car was stolen a few weeks ago.

11. I want to go on holiday but I can’t afford it.

12. I’ll tell Ann I saw you.

Later that day you tell another friend what Charlie said. Use sequence of tenses.

1 Charlie said that he was living in London now.

2. He said that __________________­­__.

3. He __________________­­__.

4. __________________­­_________________.

5. __________________­­_________________.

6. __________________­­_________________.

7. __________________­­_________________.

8. __________________­­_________________.

9. __________________­­_________________.

10. __________________­­_________________.

11. __________________­­_________________.

12. __________________­­_________________.

Ex. 31 Change the sentences using sequence of tenses

Model: The students said, "We study English." The students said that they studied English.

1. The girl said, "I studied French at school." ____________________________________.

2. The man said, "I am an interpreter." _____________________________________.

3. My aunt said, "I’ll be at home at seven o’clock."__________________________________.

4. Mary said, "I was there with my parents." _____________________________________.

5. The boy said, "I have done my homework." ____________________________________.

6. His father said, "I don’t speak Spanish." _____________________________________.

7. The doctor said, "I’ll come again in the morning."__________________________________.

8. The woman said, "I did not see Helen there." ____________________________________.

9. The children said, "We had lunch at school." ____________________________________.

10. The woman said, "I have three children." _____________________________________.

Ex. 32.Choose the correct form of the verb in brackets:

Model: I said, "I know you, and can probably persuade you to come" (know/knows/knew; can/could/will be able to).

1. Miss Garner asked her several times what ________ (happens/happen/is happening/has happened/had happened).

2. I asked her what her name ____ and she said, "Roberta" (am/is/are/was/were).

3. She said, she ______ happy on the farm (am not/isn’t/aren’t/wasn’t/weren’t).

4. My wife dragged me here. She said, It _____ good for the kids to get these lectures and shows (is/are/was/were).

5. He asked her if she ________ to be in London for long (is going/was going/ were going).

6. Mr. Smith expected that his subordinate __________ the first opportunity to apologize for his rudeness (take/takes/will take/would take).

7. At last the boy came back and asked him if he ________ for dinner (dresses/will dress/would dress).

8. I didn’t know you ______ here (is/was/are/were).

9. He inspected his program. It informed him that there __________ one interval (is/will be/would be).

10. On Saturday morning, Simon decided that he __________ some gardening (do/does/did/will do/would do).