1.3.7. Classes of nouns and grammatical categories of nouns

Lexical stratification of nouns is inseparably connec­ted with their grammatical or morphological characteris­tics. This means that certain lexical classes of nouns ap­pear to express particular grammatical properties such as number (число), case (падеж) and even impose restric­tions on their functioning. Thus number may only be expressed by countable nouns: a boy — boys, a bird — birds, a book — books. Case indicating relations of a noun to other words in a sentence is basically realized by the opposition of animate nouns which may be proper, common, inanimate or inanimate nouns: John s coat, my sisters house, the dog's tail, the idea of the book, the question under discussion.

Case and number are considered to be the gramma­tical categories of nouns since they are the most general properties of words of this class which have acquired grammatical expression.

1.4. The category of Number

This category is constituted by the opposition of the plural form of the noun and its singular form. The plural categorial form is the strong or marked member of the . opposition for it bears the formal mark of the category — the suffix -(e)s. It correlates with the categorial form of the singular regarded as weak because of the absence of the number suffix. This way of the plural number forma­tion is conventionally called productive since it is typical of the majority of English nouns.

1.4.1. The productive way of the number formation

In accordance with the general rale the plural suffix -(e)s is pronounced [z] after vowels and voiced consonants: cars, factories, pens, tables, [s] after voiceless consonants: books, cats, roofs, healths, tips, [iz] after sibilants: glasses, boxes, sizes, bridges, matches, bushes.

At the same time there is a number of exceptions to the rule in which the final voiceless consonant of the root-stem is changed into its voiced correlate [z] when the suffix -e(s) is added. This refers mainly to some nouns ending in a) -/ and b) -th.

a) calf— calves half— halves knife — knives leaf — leaves life — lives loaf— loaves sheaf — sheaves

b) bath — baths lath — laths oath — oaths path — paths

shelf— shelves thief— thieves wife — wives wolf— wolves.

However, in a small number of cases nouns with fi­nal -/or -th may have double plural forms : hoof— hoofs, hooves, scarf— scarfs, scarves, wharf— wharfs, wharves. In some words the double pronunciation is not revealed by spelling: cloth — cloths , truth — truths , youth — youths.

The group of exceptions includes also the noun house — houses.

Derivative nouns form their plural in the same way: dictation — dictations, handful — handfuls, weakness — weaknesses.

The plural of the compound nouns may be formed differently. Compounds spelt as one word form their plu­ral by adding -s to their final components: a bathroom — bathrooms, a roommate — roommates, a manservant — menservants (plural in both first and last elements), an overcoat — overcoats, a bygone — bygones, an overall — overalls, a blackbird — blackbirds, an outlook — outlooks, an overlap — overlaps.

As a rule a compound hyphenated noun consisting of one or more nounal stems takes the form of the plural number by adding -s to the first nounal component: a commander-in-chief — commanders-in-chief, a mother-in-law — mothers-in-law, a passer-by — passers-by, a hanger-on — hangers-on.

If there is no nounal stem in a compound the plural is formed by adding -s to its last component: a close-up —

close-ups, a grown-up — grown-ups, forget-me-not — forget-me-nots, merry-go-round — merry-go-rounds, a sit-in — sit-ins, a take-off — take-offs.

The same way of the plural number formation is typical of most unstable compounds: language change — linguage changes, grammar rule — grammar rules, speech sound — speech sounds, language origin — language origins.

However, in the cases like gentleman farmer, woman doctor, etc. the plural form is taken by both the first and last elements: gentlemen farmers, women doctors.

Very rarely unstable compounds may be plural in their first element: notary public — notaries public, attor­ney general — attorneys general (attorney generals is also possible).