12. Affixation. The classification of affixes. Semi-affixes. Hybrids.

Affixation is a productive way of word-formation. It is creating new words by adding an affix or several affixes to some root morpheme. Affixation is divided into suffixation and prefixation.

CLASSIFICATION OF AFFIXES

The analysis of such words can be done on two levels:

1)morphemic (we analyze morphemes which build words);

2)derivational (words are analyzed from the point of view of their structure – complex or not).

Simple words contain only the primary stem (man, girl, take, go). Derived or compound words also contain derivational affixes.

Prefixes mostly modify the lexical meaning of the word:

Suffixes do change the meaning of the word, but also they can change the lexico-grammatical class of the word (the part of speech).

It must be said that there are two types of prefixes:

those that can be used as independent words (free morphemes) (like in the words to undercook – to go under);

those that can’t function independently (bound morphemes) (mis- - to misunderstand).

As a rule prefixes do not change the part of speech, but there are several of them which do so. That’s why they are called convertive (changing the form/ the part of speech).

Prefixes can be classified according to their origin. Here they can be divided into native and borrowed.

Prefixes can also be classified into productive (which take part in deriving new words in this particular period of language development) and non-productive. Prefixes can belong to different styles.

According to their meaning English prefixes are grouped the following way (the major groups):

those of negative meaning (dis- - disloyal);

those denoting words with the opposite meaning or with the meaning of repetition of some action (un- - undress);

those denoting space, time and other relations (pre- - prewar).

The main classification of suffixes is based on the parts of speech. There can be:

noun suffixes (-dom – freedom);

adjectival (adjective forming) suffixes (-ful –wonderful);

verb-forming suffixes (-en – to shorten);

adverb suffixes (-ly).

From the point of view of meaning noun suffixes indicate a doer of an action; the relation of possession, belonging to some group; collectivity and other similar notions; diminutiveness; feminine gender.

As for other peculiarities of English suffixes, there are those that change the part of speech and those that don’t do it (grey - greyish).

The semantic type of the word can be changed with the help of some suffixes. For example, some words denoting objects become abstract (leader – leadership).

As well as prefixes, English suffixes can be stylistically coloured or neutral.

Since any living language can develop, there are some changes in the meaning of its affixes. That’s why we have such phenomena as polysemy, homonymy and synonymy of affixes. It’s only natural that affixes have several meanings. Even the most famous ones.

-er – 1) a doer of some action (a living being);

2) an object (boiler);

3) a person who is in some state (watcher);

4) distinguishes a feature of a man (chatter).

1) adverb-forming (quietly, readily);

By productive affixes we mean those that take part in deriving new words in this particular period of language development. The best way to identify productive affixes is to look for them among neologisms (new words and occasional words).

From the etymological point of view affixes are divided into the same two large groups as words: native and borrowed. For the affix to be called borrowed the total number of words with this affix must be considerable in the new language.

SEMI-AFFIXES

Semi-affix – a free form in the E. vocabulary which has acquired valency similar to that of affixes.

I.e.: land, the pronunciation [lænd] occurs only in ethnic names Scotland, Finland and the like, but not in homeland or fatherland. As these elements seem to come somewhere in between the stems and affixes, the term semi-affix has been offered to designate them.

A great combining capacity characterises the elements -like, -proof and -worthy, so that they may be also referred to semi-affixes, i.e.: godlike, gentlemanlike, ladylike, unladylike, manlike, childlike, unbusinesslike, suchlike, noteworthy, praiseworthy, seaworthy, trustworthy, and unseaworthy, untrustworthy, unpraiseworthy.

-wise traditionally referred to adverb-forming suffixes: otherwise, likewise, clockwise, crosswise, etc.

-way and -way(s) representing the Genitive: anyway(s), otherways, always, likeways, side-way(s), crossways, etc.

-proof: damp-proof, fire-proof, bomb-proof, waterproof, shockproof, kissproof (about a lipstick), foolproof (about rules, mechanisms, etc., so simple as to be safe even when applied by fools).

Semi-affixes may be also used in preposition like prefixes. Thus, anything that is smaller or shorter than others of its kind may be preceded by mini-: mini-budget, mini-bus, mini-car, mini-crisis, mini-planet, mini-skirt, etc.

Other productive semi-affixes used in pre-position are midi-, maxi-, self- and others: midi-coat, maxi-coat, self-starter, self-help.

The factors conducing to transition of free forms into semi-affixes are high semantic productivity, adaptability, combinatorial capacity (high valency), and brevity.

HYBRIDS

Words that are made up of elements derived from two or more different languages are called hybrids.

Here distinction should be made between two basic groups:

Cases when a foreign stem is combined with a native affix, as in colourless, uncertain. After complete adoption the foreign stem is subject to the same treatment as native stems and new words are derived from it at a very early stage. For instance, such suffixes as -ful, -less, -ness were used with French words as early as 1300;

Cases when native stems are combined with foreign affixes, such as drinkable, joyous, shepherdess. Here the assimilation of a structural pattern is involved, therefore some time must pass before a foreign affix comes to be recognised by speakers as a derivational morpheme that can be tacked on to native words. Therefore such formations are found much later than those of the first type and are less numerous. The early assimilation of -able is an exception. Some foreign affixes, as -ance, -al, -ity, have never become productive with native stems.