3. Diplomacy of new time

The external policy of big states in thel9th and the20th centuries gets character of global policy. The expansion of political influence on the countries _f located on various continents of the world, has resulted that they became components of the uniform plan of external policy turning to global policy. Diplomacy undergoes significant modernization, uses economic interest of the certain groups and internal political disagreements in other countries. There are former measures, when the payoffs, political subversion, treacherous infringement of treaties, preparation of the armed revolutions are applied.

Diplomacy of no fascist states could not stop aggressive activity of fascist powers. This period could not enrich the diplomatic service by essential new characteristics.

The appearance of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in the international arena promoted development of new socialist diplomacy. The difference of it was that it served the interests of working people. Socialist diplomacy was under the construction of scientific base of Marxism Leninism, the principles of dialectic and historical materialism both all-round analysis of the objective and subjective factors of the international relations. Overall objectives of the socialist diplomacy were strengthening of the unity of socialist countries, respect of the sovereignty of large and small states, struggle against aggression, prevention of nuclear war threats, and all-round co-operation with all countries of the world on the basis of a principle of peaceful coexistence. These principles were fixed in carrying out external policy of the Soviet Union.

The body of foreign affairs of the Soviet Union was formed at the Second All-Russia congress of Councils of workers and soldier's deputies on November 7-8,1917. All problems of internal and external policies of the Soviet state were examined in the USSR Communist party Central Committee and Political bureau. Activity of the

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C ommissariat of foreign affairs (later in 1946 it is transformed into the Ministry of foreign affairs) was under the control of Politburo, Secretariat and also the staff of Central Committee.

The USSR ministry of foreign affairs carried out external policy, determined and directed by high party and state bodies of the country. MFA prepared proposals and carried out accepted decisions, represented and protected the interests of the Soviet Union in the international relations, carried out the diplomatic and consular relations with the foreign states, relations with the international intergovernmental organisations. Besides it the USSR MFA supervised over the activity of diplomatic representations both consular establishments and representations of the Soviet Union at the international organisations, carried out on behalf of the state negotiations with the foreign states and concluded the international treaties and agreements. Between the two World wars the USSR the new forms of activity enriched diplomatic service. In September 1934 the Soviet Union entered the League of Nations - international intergovernmental organisation. For years of activity in this organisation the USSR consistently struggled for the peace and collective security, exposed fascist aggression and Munich policy of western powers. Appeals to general and complete disarmament have already sounded during this period.

During the Second World War peculiar of the Soviet Union diplomatic activity was the creation of antihitler coalition, which had important meaning for the victory over Germany and Japan. The Soviet diplomacy had brought large contribution in the definition of bases post-war world that had found reflection in the UN Charter.

In the period of "cold war" there were new forms and methods in the USSR diplomatic service activity. The constructive co-operation of the countries, which begun in the frameworks of antihitler coalition, was narrowed. The diplomatic service was directed on strengthening and development of the socialist international relations (bilateral treaties on friendship, co-operation and mutual aid), creation of the international organisations of the socialist countries - Council of economic mutual aid and Organisation of the countries of the Warsaw pact.

The diplomatic service of the Soviet Union used every possible international-legal forms and means for the peace; the treaties on

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friendship and union, pacts about no aggression and neutrality; treaties on mutual help, economic co-operation, participation in the international organisations, conferences on disarmament, on creation of the system of collective security.

Diversified methods used by the Soviet diplomacy were: offensive character in the struggle for strengthening and development of peaceful relations, use of compromises in the interests of the world and peaceful co-existence, not mentioning the nature of socialist construction, wide use of methods of negotiations.

SOURCES OF DEVELOPMENT OF DIPLOMATIC SERVICE OF KAZAKH KHANS

1. Sources of development of diplomatic relations Kazakh Khans with the countries of Central Asia, Iran, Russia in the period of 16-17 centuries

The appearance and development of the diplomatic relations of Kazakh Khans with the countries of Central Asia is connected with external policy of the Kazakh khans directed on expansion of territory, on the strengthening of power over cities and steppe of Sirdarya, areas of East Dashty - and - Kipchak. The political interests of the first Kazakh Khans were focused on Bukhara, Tashkent, Turkistan and Kashgar. The first state was Mogulstan, with which the founders of Kazakh khans-Janibek and Girey had entered the allied relations. Muhamed Haydar Dulaty wrote "friendly and peaceful relations from the time of Esen Buga up-till ruling of Abu~ar-Rashid khan (30 years of the 16th century). In this period the bases external relations of the Kazakh and population of other part of Mogulstan were created. The problems of the declaration of war and the conclusion of treaties were only in responsibility of khans.

The expansion of a territory and rising of Kazakh Khans started at Kasim khan. Alongside with military successes Kasim khan diplomatically used disagreements between Shaibanids and Iran shakh Ismail 1 for strengthening the authority in the south of Kazakh Khans and also fierce struggle of various groupings inside Shaibanids. Diplomacy as the phenomenon of political culture is formed in the

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r elations with neighboring countries. The Kazakh khans were more involved into the orbit of political events in the neighbor states of Central Asia. With strengthening of power of Kazakh Khans the neighboring countries searched for the union. So, Mogulstan khan Sultan Said searched for the union of Kazakh khan Kasim. The allied treaties formed relations with Mangit murzaz and Kirghiz governors. From the record of the Austrian diplomat Sigizmund Gerbershtain, who visited some times Moscow, the Kazakh became known in Western Europe as independent people during the government of khan Kasim.

At the second half of the 16th century Kazakh Khans were strongly weakened. The sources testify about internecine wars with Uzbek, Nogay and Mogul governments, which were former allies. During this period military institute was social base, around of which there were these states. The strengthening and association of Kazakh Khans were observed at Hakk-Nazar khan. Diplomatically using struggle of feudal groups in Nogay Ord₅ Hakk-Nazar khan managed to attract Nogay murzaz on his part. In Vilyaminov-Zernov research about Kasim king and princes was informed that Nogay murzaz Ismail wrote to Ivan 1Y about his nephews, who joined the part of Kazakh khan. Sent by Russian Tsar to Nogay Ord Semen Maltsev had informed that" the Kazakh Ord of Hakk-Nazar king " had entered Nogay steppe and the part of grounds departed to Kazakh Khans. The English traveler Jenkinson testified the power of the Kazakh of that time," The Kazakhs are strong and powerful people, who three years restricted Tashkent and stopped the interference free driving of caravans by robberies ".

Kazakh-Kirghiz union resisted in the struggle of East Turkistan with Moguls. In some sources Hack Near was presented as " a ruler of Kazakh and Kirghiz ".

At the second half of the 16th century external policy history of Kazakh Khans had its own features. Rise of political activities of the Kazakh or its failure were characteristic ones for this period. Kazakh Khans, occupying huge steppe and the space, at the end of the 16th century had appeared limited in steppes and mountains of Semirechya, to the south of a line Sarisu.

At khan Tawekele (Tevekele) in 1586-1598 Kazakh Khans, according to agreements made still at Kasim khan, rendered support to

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Uzbek khan Abdullah in his struggle with Baba - sultan. This military - political union promoted joining of Hogent land, Afrikent vilayet in Samarkand area to Kazakh Khans. The diplomatic relations of the Kazakh khans with neighboring states depend on internal situations. As soon as there were uprising against the Governor-General of khan Abdullah in Tashkent, Kazakh here came to the aid of revolt people. Khan Tawekele tore "Swearing treaty" with Uzbek khan in 1583. Using internecine war between Abdullah khan and his son, Tawekele had broken an army of Abdalallah near Tashkent. Skillfully using conflicts in Mavernahr, Tawekele occupied it in 1598. According to the treaty of 1598 Turkistan with its cities and Tashkent had entered into the structure of Kazakh Khans. For expansion and strengthening of the territory of Kazakh Khans of this period it was skilfully used not only military power, but also successfully manipulated both international conditions and appearance of an unstable conditions inside the countries.

In the 17th century external policy situation of Kazakh Khans was difficult. Tauke khan had undertaken attempt to strengthen the authority with the help of such social support as institute of Beas, making authoritative one among the people. Council of Beas with participation of the most influential representatives of three juzez, having unshakeable authority was created. The Senior juz was represented by Tole bea, Middle juz -Kazbek bea, Younger juz - Ayteke bea. Put forward beas played a main role in khan council. Their wisdom and determination were directed on the decision of state affaires connected to internal and external policies of Kazakh Khans. In external policy actions during governing of Tauke khan the certain successes were observed. Union with Kirghiz, to which the part of Kara kalpaks had joined, constrained the impact of Jungars. There were negotiations with Bukhara khan Subkhakuly concerning returning of Tashkent. At the same time Tauke khan persistently achieved Russian - Kazakh rapprochement. Only for the period of 1686 -1693 he had sent five embassies with the important diplomatic assignments to Russia. Despite of certain difficulties the peaceful relations between Kazakh Khans and Russia were kept.

Kazakh Khans continuously conducted wars, asserting its independence. In these conditions it was compelled to search for the

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s trong allies capable to assist in the struggle with aggressors. Such allies were Russia and China.

One of the first ambassadors directed to the Kazakh steppe in 1573 was Tretyak Chebukov. Tsar Ivan Grosny had put before the embassy a task - an establishment of military union of Russia and Kazakh Khans in the struggle against Siberian khan Kuchum. In his turn, khan Kuchum who was afraid of possible union had attacked the embassy and destroyed all of its members.

By the further development of diplomatic contacts between Russian state and Kazakh Khans was the embassy of khan Tawekele. At the end of 1594 the Kazakh ambassador Kul-Mukhamed arrived in Moscow for the conclusion of the friendly agreement with Russia. The embassy of Ku]-Mukhamed achieved the reception of the Russian tsar for the support in the struggle against Bukhara empire.

An active position of Kazakh Khans was in strengthening of its borders and searching allies of Russia in the struggle against Siberian and Bukhara khans and it demonstrated the concurrence of political positions of the two states. Besides in this period there were tendencies on consolidation not only political, but also Russian- Kazakh trade communications.

The consolidation of Russian - Kazakh relations was promoted by the embassy of Villyamini Stepanov to khan Tawekele in January 1595. One of Tawekele sons was sent together with Stepanov embassy for strengthening of arrangements in Russia.

At the beginning of the 17th century Jungars Khans appeared on arena. There were numerous clashes and wars of Jungars with Kazakh khans. In the period of peace Kazakh embassies from sultan Ginger arrived in the Headquarter of huntaygy Batur, The embassy, however, could not settle problems between Kazakh and oyrat feudal. Jungars attacked the Siberian lands including in the structure of Russia. The Moscow state was interested in the conclusion of untijungar union with Kazakh Khans. In conditions of amplifying pressure of Jungar Khans and activation of its external policy in all directions, Kazakh khans, in their turn, carried out active negotiations with khans of Kirghiz tribes, Bukhara and Hiva for joint repulse of Jungar invasion. However

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u ntijungar union of these states carried temporary character and soon had broken up.

2. Diplomatic relations of Kazakh khans with Russia, Jungar Khans, Iran in 18 century

Kazakh Khans, divided into three independent juzez, had shown the political weakness, despite of military successes of batirs in war with Jungar. At the beginning of the 18th century Kazakh Khans was attacked from different directions. Being in the ring of the enemy environment the Kazakh khans tried to solve problems of the Great steppes security not only by military way, but also by diplomatic methods.

On November 6,1728 khan of Middle juz Semeke sent his embassy to the Volga Kalmyks for peace negotiations. Having secured the rear, the Kazakh khans and sultans were going to direct the main impact against Jungar armies. Each sent embassy was allocated with the right of diplomatic pressing on the Governors and carried out policy, favorable to the state.

For example, in 40 years khan of Younger juz Abilkhair had to conduct diplomatic game in three fronts - with Russian Empress Anna Yanovna, Jungar huntaygy Galden-Tsaren and Iranian Shah Nadir. At the same time he supported friendly relations with Hiva khan.

The embassy of Abulkhayr, led by Seytkul Koydagulov and Kutlument Koshtaev, which had addressed the message to Empress Anna Yanovna with the request for inclusion of Younger juz to the structure of the Russian Empire, had arrived in Ufa on September 8,1730. Khan expected that the inclusion of Younger juz into the structure of Russia could remove contradictions between the Kazakhs and Bashkirs, Kalmyks and also to get powerful aid of Russia in the struggle against Jungars.

On February 19,1731 Empress AnnaYonovna had signed the Charter to Abilkhair khan and " to all Kazakh people " about voluntary acceptance of them into the Russian citizenship. Thus there should be an observance of the certain items ( payment of "Yuasa"...).

In 1740 Abilkhair addressed through the embassy of Gladishev V.D. to the Russian government for intermediary actions in the relations

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w ith Persian khan- shakh Nadir, who occupied Hiva and had created threat to the grounds of the Kazakhs. To the answer of it the embassy led by Mansurov was directed to Hiva, to Nadir. Shakh was warned about undesirable consequences, which could be able to develop main case of the movement of Persian army to the North. Such intervention of the Russian administration had played a positive role in elimination of direct danger for the Kazakh steppe from the part of Persia and strengthening of Abilkhair rule not only in Younger juz, but also among Karakalpaks.

In multivectoral diplomacy, which was carried out by khan Abilkhair, there were three directions, such as Russian, Jungarian and Iranian, where the certain successes were achieved.

3, Multiplanned external policy activity ofAblay khan

Second half of the 18th century was the period of the new revival of Kazakh state that is connected with the name ofAblay khan.

In 1755 the army of Sin China entered Jungar and joined its territory. Now Sin China had appeared close to Kazakh Khans.

Ablay khan understood that in conditions of the dissociation and constant internecine war Kazakh Khans could be not capable to resist external danger. Therefore only in seven years in 1778 he sent his son Tugum to Ekaterin 11 with the request to ratify his khanship. At all his fluctuations, maneuvering Ablay constantly emphasized: "... From rather old time... to her imperial highest court I am in due of my former obedience".

Ablay, aspiring to strengthen his authority and to stabilize the situation near to borders, carried out dual external policy. First of all he had adjusted Kazakh - Jungar communications, having established normal diplomatic relations and having renewed peace trade.

In 1756 the groups of Sin army appeared on the territory of Senior and Middle juzes. Ablay collected forces for repulse but after several battles the Chinese advantage became obvious. According to the Chinese sources Ablay met the general Jao Huz on the east coast of lake Balhash and officially declared his obedience to Sin. After this meeting Ablay receipts the embassy of the general, then he directed his people to the countryside residence of the Emperor Tsyan Lun with the official

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a pplication on acceptance of citizenship. Ablay had directed to the Chinese Emperor 19 envoys for the period since September 1757 till January 1777.

Ablay khan managed to maneuver between the two largest states and to carry out rather independent policy. Diplomatic methods of maintenance of the sovereignty of the state were combined for this purpose with success.

The flexible policy of Ablay concerning China allowed carrying out multiplanned activity. The analysis of diplomatic contacts shows that at tensioning relations with China or necessity of the help Ablay directed close and distant relatives or well-known people by origin to Sin. They were emanates, who carried out the role of ambassadors.

The diplomatic relations of Ablay khan with Peking allowed reserving the territories of Kazakh Khans. On the other hand skilful diplomatic balance of perspicacious khan between Russia and China the status of Kazakh Khans prolonged for one century.

Thus for the period of existence of Kazakh Khans from the second half of the 15th century till 80 years of the 19th century the active diplomatic actions, directed on preservation of the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the state, were undertaken

ACTIVITY OF FOREIGN POLICY BODY WITHIN THE