Vocabulary:

наследственная информация – hereditary information

превращение веществ и энергии – conversion of matter and energy

особь – an individual

место обитания – a habitat

популяция – a population

эволюционные преобразования – evolutionary transformations

сообщество – a community

сложность организации – the complexity of organization

биосфера – the biosphere

круговорот веществ – the flow of matter

Language Focus 1

Passive Voice

1 Compare:

- They built this house in 1887 (active).

This house was built in 1887 (passive).

- This thing will change your life (active).

Your life will be changed by this thing (passive).

When A does something to B, there are often two ways to express it. If we want A (doer) to be the subject, we use an active verb: built, will change. If we want B (the “receiver” of the action) to be the subject, we use: was built, will be changed.

In most cases, the subject of an active verb is not expressed in the corresponding passive sentence. If it does have to be expressed, this usually happens in an expression with by; the noun is called the ‘agent’.

This house was built in 1887 by Sir George Green.

2 We often choose passive structures when we want to talk about an action, but are not so interested in saying who or what does/did it. Passives without ‘agents’ are common in academic and scientific writing for this reason.

The laboratories are very well equipped nowadays.

3 We often prefer to begin a sentence with something that is already known, or that we are already talking about, and to put the ‘news’ at the end. This is another common reason for choosing passive structures. Compare:

Tom is completing his diploma paper. (Active verb so that the ‘news’ – the diploma paper – can go at the end.)

Great experiment! – Yes, it was completed by our young scientists. (passive verb so that the ‘news’ – our young scientists – can go at the end)

Passive Voice: Tense Forms

Fill in the table with forms of verbs in the Passive Voice:

Present Simple …. / is /….trusted Past Simple ….. / ..… obtained Future Simple ….. ..… held Present Perfect ….. / has ….. …… Past Perfect ….. ….. ………. Future Perfect ….. ….. been …

Present Continuous ….. / .. / ..… …… ..…. Past Continuous ….. / ..… being …... Perfect Continuous have /… …... …. studied

I. Split into pairs. Complete the sentences with any possible endings.

1. The necessary substance is being (has been) obtained …

2. The lecture will be (will have been) presented to 400 students of all years …

3. The meeting was being (had been) held in the Main Building of MSU …

4. The calculations of the shuttle’s movement have not been (are not being) corrected …

II. Form groups of four. The first student reads the beginning of the sentence; the rest give their variants of its end.

1) A new shopping centre has recently been built in the neighbourhood …

2) Two atomic power stations are being put into operation near Moscow these days..

3) Sample collection will have been completed by today’s evening …

4) When the accident happened, I was being shown the building …

III. Think of your own beginnings and continuations. Use the Passive Voice in the beginnings.

Words, Words, Words

I. Compose three sentences which would include all the words and word

c

A cell consists of/is composed of/ compri-ses the plasma mem-brane, the cytoplasm and subcellular struc-tures.

The plasma membrane, the cytoplasm and sub-cellular stuctures con-stitute/comprise a cell.

The cell includes the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

ombinations below. Please pay attention to the Usage Box below. You can use the constructions given there.

hereditary information an individual

the biosphere population

microscopic and multicellular life-forms

subcellular structures non-living matter

II. In pairs, group these words according to any chosen criterion.

individual a community the plasma membrane a cell

subcellular structures conversion of matter and energy the cytoplasm

a habitat the flow of matter organic molecules proteins

vital functions genes metabolism the biosphere

Grammar Review

I. Translate into English using passive constructions.

1. Многое было сделано для развития биологической науки в современной России.

2. В этой лаборатории за последнее время было реализовано только два исследовательских проекта.

3. Расчеты собираются завершить на этой неделе.

4. Необходимую информацию скоро предоставят.

5. Печень может одновременно выполнять две функции.

6. На следующем уровне организации клетки объединяются в ткани.

7. Cегодня были отправлены новые данные.

8. Зеленые растения получают энергию в процессе фотосинтеза.

9. Врачу необходимо доверять.

II. Think of sentences that would include the following words and word combinations:

a. ... being tested … b. … been provided …

c. … am trusted … hurt … d. … to be obtained …

e. … should be put into … f. … was presented …

g. … will … performed …

Language focus 2

P

auditory -слуховой

vivacity –

оживленность

to be prone to smth – иметь склонность к чему-либо

assive Voice: it-constructions

I. Find it+passive constructions in this extract. Can you think what they serve for grammatically and stylistically?

It is generally agreed that the more difficult it is to follow the lecture, the more easily we get obsessed by sleep or other pleasant activity apart from listening to the professor. It has been observed that the farther you are from the source of noise, the more you are prone to sleepiness. It is thought that this phenomenon develops due to the fact that the sound vibrations produced by the professor’s articulative organs affect the auditory receptors of the nearby listeners stronger, resulting in more vivacity and higher speed of writing.

II. Include it-constructions given here in one of the articles below (you may choose any). Mind the tense of the passive!

It has been suggested

It has been proposed

It has been recommended

It is required

It is demanded

It has been announced

It has been explained

It was reported

It is rumored

It has been said

It is agreed

It has been arranged

It has been decided

+ that

It was believed

It is felt

It is widely known

It is thought

It is understood

It has been determined

It has been noticed

It is observed

It can be expected

A Organisms can be grouped into three major categories, called domains: (1) Bacteria, (2) Archaea [a:kı(:)ə], and (3) Eukarya [jukærıə]. This classification is based on fundamental differences among the cell types that comprise these organisms. Members of both the Bacteria and the Archaea normally consist of single, simple cells. Members of the Eukarya have bodies composed of one or more highly complex cells and are subdivided into four kingdoms: Protista, Fungi [fΛndзı], Plantae, and Animalia. There are exceptions to any simple set of criteria used to characterize the domains and kingdoms, but three characteristics are particularly useful: cell type, the number of cells in each organism, and the mode of nutrition – that is, energy acquisition.

B There are two fundamentally different types of cells: (1) prokaryotic and (2) eukaryotic. Kariotic refers to the nucleus of a cell; eu means “true” in Greek; eukaryotic cells possess a “true”, membrane-enclosed nucleus. Eukaryotic cells are larger than prokaryotic cells and contain a variety of other organelles, many surrounded by membranes. Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus; their genetic material resides in their cytoplasm. They are small – only 1 or 2 micrometers long – and lack membrane-bound organelles. Pro means “before” in Greek; prokaryotic cells almost certainly evolved before eukaryotic cells (and eukaryotic cells probably evolved from prokaryotic cells). Bacteria and Archaea consist of prokaryotic cells; the cells of the four kingdoms of Eukarya are eukaryotic.

C All organisms need energy to live. Photosynthetic organisms capture energy from sunlight and store it in molecules such as sugars and fats. These organisms, including plants, some bacteria, and some protists, are therefore called autotrophs, meaning “self-feeders”. Organisms that cannot photosynthesize must acquire energy prepackaged in the molecules of the bodies of other organisms; hence, these organisms are called heterotrophs, meaning “other-feeders”. Many archaeans, bacteria, and protists and all fungi and animals are heterotrophs. Heterotrophs differ in the size of the food they eat. Some, such as bacteria and fungi, absorb individual food molecules; others, including most animals, eat whole chunks of food and break them down to molecules in their digestive tracts (ingestion).

III. Three tasks presented below are multiple choice tasks. Only one answer in each assignment is correct. Make your choice!

1. A scientist examines an organism and finds that it is eukaryotic, heterotrophic, and multicellular and that it absorbs nutrients. She concludes that the organism is a member of the kingdom:

a. Bacteria

b. Protista

c. Plantae

d. Fungi

e. Animalia

f. Archaea

2. Which statement is correct?

1. Eukaryotic cells are simpler than prokaryotic cells.

2. “Heterotroph” means “self-feeder”.

3. Mutations are accidental changes in genes.

4. A scientific theory is similar to an educated guess.

5. Genes are proteins that produce DNA.

3. Which of the following are characteristics of living things?

1. They reproduce.

2. They respond to stimuli.

3. They are complex and organized.

4. They acquire energy.

5. All of the above.

Language Focus 3

Indirect Passive

1 Some verbs can have two objects (usually a person and a thing):

We gave the professor all the materials. (= We gave all the materials to the professor.)

(Object 1 – the professor (indirect object), object 2 – all the materials (direct object))

So it is possible to make two passive sentences (without or with a preposition):

The professor was given all the materials. or All the materials were given to the professor.

2 Some other verbs that can have two objects are:

ask make pay show tell

bring offer promise take throw

buy pass send teach write

3 When these verbs are used in passive structures, the subject is usually the person who receives something, not the thing which is sent, given, etc.; however, it can be the subject if necessary:

What happened to other books? – Well, an Oxford Russian dictionary was given to Ms Jones.

I. Form the Direct and Indirect Passives where possible. Follow the example given.

Indirect Obj. Direct Obj.

Somebody gave me the book. =>

The book was given to me.

I was given the book.

Not all the verbs can be ‘turned around’ in such a way (e.g. to bring, to send, to take):

Somebody brought a letter to me.

A letter was brought to me.

I was brought the letter.

1. Some university has granted a scholarship to Peter.

A scholarship ………………………………………………………………….……

Peter………………………………………………………………………………….

2. They asked me a lot of questions about my research.

I…….…………………………………………………………………………….…

A lot of questions ………………………………………………………….………

3. They offered the post of rector to Mr Sawyer yesterday evening.

The post of rector …………………….…………………………………….………

Mr Sawyer ……………………………………………………………………..……

4. You should show respect to the police!

Respect ..……………………………...………………………………….……….…

The police …………………………………………………………………..…….…

5. Professor Burne taught us several new methods of genetic research.

We…..…….……………………………………………………………………….

Several new methods ……………………………………………………….………

6. You promised me a dinner!

A dinner .……………………………………………………………………....……

………………………………………………………………………………....……

7. Those scientists do not pay me the rent because they say they are very poor.

The rent ……………..…………………………………………………………....…

…………..…………………………………………………………………………

8. Professor Oliver will read us a part from “Hamlet”.

………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………….

9. Somebody lent me a hundred roubles.

……………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………

10. Some person sent me a greeting by the Internet.

I…………………………………..…………………………………………………

A greeting ……………..………………………………………………………....…

11. A stranger gave me a bunch of roses.

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

II. Think of your own examples using these verbs.

Language Focus 4

Prepositional Passive

The objects of prepositional verbs can become subjects in passive structures.

We have looked at the plan carefully.  The plan has been carefully looked at.

Nobody listens to her.  She is never listened to.

Note the word order. The preposition cannot be dropped.

I don’t like to be shouted at. (NOT I don’t like to be shouted.)

I. Translate the dialogues. Mind the prepositional verbs. Who are speaking? Act the dialogues in class.

a) - How can this be accounted for?

- We don’t know, sir. Such things have never been dealt with before.

- Is there any authority deserving to be relied upon?

- I am afraid there is none, sir.

b) – There is nothing here to be laughed at!

- Why? This can’t be looked at without a smile.

- You’ve probably found something in this worth being written about?

- To be disapproved of by people like you?.. Well, I am not afraid of it. Not a bit.

c) – Has he been sent for?

- Well, he’s been spoken to.

- And what did he say?

- He said it should be thought of as a slight depression.

- A slight depression! Indeed she’s nearly killed herself! Can he be relied upon?

- I believe not. What should we do?

II. Translate into English.

1. Широко известно, что археобактерии представляют собой отдельный домен (надцарство), как бактерии и эукариоты.

2. Было решено, что одним из критериев, по которым организмы подразделяются на группы, является способ получения энергии, то есть способ питания.

3. Раньше считали, что археобактерии включаются в домен (надцарство) бактерий.

4. Полагают, что прокариотические клетки появились прежде эукариотических.

5. Существует соглашение о том, что домен (надцарство) эукариотов подразделяется на четыре царства: растения, животные, грибы и простейшие.

6. Было установлено, что у прокариотических клеток нет органелл, окруженных мембранами.

7. Было замечено, что некоторые простейшие являются гетеротрофами.

8. Сообщили, что исследуемый организм всасывает питательные вещества.

9. Было предложено назвать тип клеток, содержащих окруженное мембраной ядро, эукариотическими, так как слово kariot обозначает «обладающий ядром».

10. Ходят слухи, что этот новый организм питается солнечной энергией, но при этом не фотосинтезирует.

III. Fill in the gaps with any number of words, word combinations or sentences to get a coherent (связный) text.

I was given ………………………and told ………………… I was not promised …………… but offered ………………………………... It …………………….. . Finally I was sent ………. and told that my problem will be dealt with as soon as they ………………………………

IV. Make up singular-plural pairs and formulate the rules for plural forms of different words of Greek and Latin origin.

species phenomena

vacuum syntheses

criterion axes

helix hypotheses

phenomenon theses

genius crises

momentum species

crisis loci

synthesis criteria

thesis momenta

nucleus quanta

quantum radii

analysis foci

locus nuclei

radius analyses

hypothesis helices

axis maxima

focus genii

maximum vacua