Unit 12 Animal Behaviour

Introduction

I. Check if you know the following words:

innate behaviour extensive designated appropriate random

elicit stimuli modify input response withdrawal

Listen to the text and determine the differences of innate and learned behaviour.

II. Try to apply the concepts stated and answer the following questions:

1. You are a police officer; your new partner is a German shepherd, which you are assigned to train as a narcotics dog. You plan to use motivational techniques rather than negative reinforcement. Which behaviour principles (processes) would you use in your training? What are the advantages of positive over negative reinforcement?

2. Your 3-year-old child persistently approaches the hot stove even though you have told her not to touch it. Which type of learning is she attempting to use? Is there any other learning process that might work that would not require her to touch the hot stove?

Reading

Read and translate the following text.

Robot cricket finds her mate

The cheerful chirping of a cricket is actually the “call song” of the male as he attempts to attract a female. The female follows the song unerringly, deftly detouring around obstacles and ignoring other sounds en route to her prospective mate. How intelligent is this apparently purposeful behaviour? Barbara Webb, a psychologist at the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, attacked this problem in an novel way; she built a robot female cricket. Webb’s goal was to find out whether mate-finding behaviour could be distilled down to taxes, relatively simple responses to stimuli, such as responses that could be wired into an electronic robot (and thus wired into genetically predetermined neural connections). Although its tangle of wires appears bewildering, the circuitry of the robot is trivial when compared with the potential complexity of neural connections – even in a cricket’s brain.

On the laboratory bench, a loudspeaker “male cricket” broadcasts its species-specific call song: short, regularly repeating tones. As the robot rolls forward, microphonic ears conduct the song to electronic circuitry that filters it from other sounds and adds together the repeating syllables of the song that reach each ear. The summed sounds in the ear closest to the loudspeaker reach a critical threshold level first, activating a mechanism that turns the robot toward the sound. The turning halts when an equal intensity of sound hits both ears. Sensory “bumpers” help the robot detour around obstacles. The success of “robocricket” surpassed Webb’s expectations; it not only found its “mate” but it unexpectedly mimicked other cricket-searching behaviours. Placed between two loudspeakers that broadcast at equal volume, the robot, like a real cricket, arbitrarily chose one speaker. If the repeating syllables of the song were altered between the two speakers, the robot (again, like a real cricket) first positioned itself exactly between them, then made an arbitrary choice. The electronic circuitry provides insights into mechanisms that could be used by a simple nervous system to produce complex adaptive behaviour.

Language focus 1

Conditionals 1, 2 and 3

1 Conditional sentences are formed as follows:

Type 1: if + present tense, present tense or modal

I am sure you’ll understand the situation if I explain it to you.

If the scientist succeeds in confirming his repeated observations, it may be stated that an empirical law or rule of nature has been discovered.

Type 2: if + past tense, would/could + verb

If we didn’t invite the rest of the group to the party, they would feel hurt.

Could this method be approached from a historical point of view if we gave a brief account of the development of concepts and theories involved?

Type 3: if + had + past participle of verb, would/could have + past participle of verb: If we had known about the problem, we would have done something.

2 Conditional type 1 has the following uses:

- cause and effect

If you criticize people, you’ll kill their creativity.

Students work harder if you motivate them.

- predict consequences of likely situations

We will fail to be on time if we don’t follow his advice.

- request action in the event of a likely situation

Tell me if you get any new ideas.

Let me know if you need additional data.

3 Conditional type 2 has the following uses:

- predict consequences of unlikely situations

If the grant were received, we would have the money to expand.

- talk about unreal and hypothetical situations

If we had more time, we’d be able to work more effectively.

4 Conditional type 3 has the following uses:

- evaluate or analyse past actions

If we’d made the decision sooner, we could have saved a lot of money. (= We should have decided sooner.)

- talk about hypothetical situations in the past

If we had had a different idea, we’d have been able to calculate the result of an experiment in a shorter time.

I. Write the verbs in the appropriate form to make a conditional sentence with the meaning that is given in brackets.

1. I (invite) _________ you for dinner if I (know) _________ you were free. (hypothetical situation in the past)

2. If the experiment (be conducted) _________ earlier, we (have) _________ the results now. (hypothetical)

3. If we (increase) _________ the data volume, we (improve) _________ the validity of the research. (cause and effect)

4. If man (not develop) _________ his large brain, some other mammal, perhaps, the raccoon, (do) _________ so in a few tens of millions of years. (hypothetical situation in the past)

5. Our colleagues (get) _________ the grant if they (submit) _________ all necessary documents before the deadline. (predicting likely situation)

6. Just (send) _________ me an email if you (have) _________ any problems. (request)

7. It (be) _________ better if we (be) _________ honest about the situation with samples. (tentative suggestion)

8. If we (fail) _________ to complete the study on time, we (have to) _________ miss the conference. (unlikely situation)

9. If we (install) the software last year, we (do) _________ the research. (analyse past actions)

10 If he (go) _________ to university, he (get) _________ a better job. (hypothetical situation in the past)

Words, Words, Words

Complete the abstract with the correct option A-C. Consult the dictionary if necessary.

Animals May Defend Territories that Contain Resources

In many animal (1) ______, (2) ______ for (3) ______ takes the form of territoriality, the defense of an area where important resources are located. The (4) ______ resources may include places to mate, raise young, feed, or store (5) ______. Territorial animals generally (6) ______ most or all of their activities to the defended area and (7) ______ their presence there. Territories may be defended by males, females, a mated pair, or entire social groups (as in the case of defense of their nest by social insects). However, territorial behaviour is most commonly seen in adult males, and territories are normally defended against members of the same species, who compete most directly for the resources being protected. For example, they can be a tree where a woodpecker stores acorns, small (8) ______ in the sand used as nesting sites by cichlid fish, a hole in the sand used as a home by a crab, or an area of forest (9) ______ food for a squirrel.

(10) ______ and defending a territory require considerable time and energy, yet territoriality is seen in animals as diverse as worms, arthropods, fish, birds, and (11) ______. The fact that organisms as unrelated as worms and humans independently (12) ______ similar behaviour suggests that territoriality provides some important (13) ______ (14) ______. Although the particular benefits depend on the species and the type of territory it defends, some broad generalizations are possible. First (as with dominance hierarchies), once a territory is established through aggressive interactions, relative peace (15) ______ as boundaries are recognized and respected. The saying “good fences make good neighbours” also applies to nonhuman territories. One reason for this (16) ______ is that an animal is highly motivated to defend its territory and will often defeat even larger, stronger animals that attempt to invade it. (17) ______, an animal outside its territory is much less secure and more easily defeated.

For males of many species, successful territorial defense has a direct impact on reproductive success. In these species, females are attracted to a high-quality (18) ______ territory, which might have features such as large size, (19) ______, food, and secure nesting areas. Males who successfully defend the most desirable territories have the greatest chance of mating and passing on their genes. For example, experiments have shown that male sticklebacks that defend large territories are more successful in (20) ______ mates than are males who defend small territories. Females who select males with the best territories increase their own (21) ______ success and pass their genetic traits (typically including their mate-selection preferences) to their offspring.

Territories are advertised through (22) ______, sound, and (23) ______. If the territory is small enough, the owner’s mere presence (24) ______ by aggressive displays at (25) ______, can be a (26) ______ defense. A mammal that owns a territory but cannot always be present may use pheromones to scent-mark its terrestrial boundaries. Male rabbits use pheromones secreted by glands in their chin and by anal glands to mark their territories. Hamsters rub the areas around their (27) ______ with secretions from special glands in their glands.

1 A specimen B species C samples

2 A competence B competition C competency

3 A resources B reserves C supply

4 A defended B defeated C deseeded

5 A meal B nourishment C food

6 A restrict B refrain C restore

7 A advise B adverse C advertise

8 A destinations B depressions C degressions

9 A supplying B procuring C providing

10 A Acquiring B Requiring C Requiting

11 A mammas B mammoths C mammals

12 A evoked B evolved C involved

13 A adaptive B adoptive C abortive

14 A disadvantages B disabilities C advantages

15 A prevails B prevents C prewires

16 A aspect B extent C respect

17 A Inversely B Conversely C Diversely

18 A breeding B blooming C brooding

19 A abundant B redundant C excessive

20 A detracting B attracting C attributing

21 A creative B productive C reproductive

22 A seeing B sight C vision

23 A smell B scent C fragrance

24 A force B enforce C reinforce

25 A interveners B intruders C interrupters

26 A sufficient B suffocating C suffruticose

27 A fangs B teeth C dens

Language focus 2

“I Wish” Sentences

We use wish to say that we regret something, that something is not as we would like it to be:

I wish he would take part in the project. = I want him to take part in the project.

I wish he took part in the project. = He is not taking part in the project and I regret that.

I wish he had taken part in the project. = He didn’t take part in the project, I can’t change anything.

I. Choose the verbs in the appropriate form.

1. I wish I _________ a computer. It would make life so much easier.

A have B had C would have

2. I feel so tired. I wish I _________ less today.

A had worked B worked C work

3. I wish it _________ summer now.

A were B had been C is

4. I wish it _________ stop snowing.

A stops B stopped C would stop

5. I wish they _________ part in the competition but they refused.

A would take B took C had taken

6. I wish I _________ more friends.

A have B had C would have

7. I wish I _________ here. It is so noisy and boring here.

A don’t come B hadn’t come C didn’t come

II. Translate sentences into English.

1. Если ты встретишь Петра, тебе следует попросить у него прощения.

2. Жаль, что вы не хотите сосредоточить свое внимание на одной задаче.

3. Желательно, чтобы эти эксперименты были проведены до начала новой серии опытов.

4. Если бы он согласился на изменение условий эксперимента, успех был бы гарантирован.

5. Я был бы очень благодарен, если бы вы прислали мне эти материалы как можно скорее.

6. Человек может достигнуть исключительных результатов, если его воодушевляет высокая цель.

7. Если бы проверка была проведена вовремя, были бы исключены случайные ошибки и были бы получены надежные результаты.

8. Теория была бы принята большинством ученых, если бы мы предоставили новые доказательства в ее поддержку.

9. Жаль, что так мало внимания уделяется сравнению экспериментально полученных результатов с результатами, предсказанными теоретически.

10. Если используется новая методика, специально разработанная для данного эксперимента, подобные недостатки легко преодолеть.

Render in English

Игры животных: почему и зачем?

Что такое игра? Четкого определения игры до сих пор нет, хотя все понимают, о чем идет речь. Невозможно не любоваться играющими щенками или котятами. Игра - поведение типичное для развивающегося организма. Для некоторых животных точно определен возраст, когда они играют. Например, у лабораторных крыс игровое поведение наблюдается с 22-24 дня по 60 день жизни, у хомяков - с 28 дня по 58-68. Часто игру начинает взрослое животное (мать): львица побуждает львят ловить кончик ее хвоста, обезьяны поворачивают на спину и щекочут своих малышей, кошки, вылизывая котят, затевают с ними борьбу.

В играх различных животных можно выделить общие признаки. Движения в игре не отличаются от тех, которые встречаются в иных ситуациях: охота, умерщвление добычи, драка, погоня, половая активность. Наблюдая за игрой котенка с клубком шерсти, нельзя не увидеть сходства с охотой на мышей, а прыжки и движения лап при ловле подвешенной на нитке бумажки такие же, как при охоте взрослой кошки на птиц. К. Лоренц описывает, как взрослая кошка защищает своих котят от собаки: она идет на нее характерным боковым движением на вытянутых лапах, взъерошив шерсть и распушив хвост. Подобные характерные передвижения боком часто можно наблюдать у играющих котят, но они никогда не используются в драке взрослых кошек. Несмотря на имитацию охоты или драки, животные не наносят друг другу серьезного вреда. В игре часто сочетаются элементы разных типов поведения, не связанных между собой во взрослой жизни, например, охотничье и половое. Порядок, с которым движения следуют друг за другом, также может не соответствовать поведению взрослого животного, а иногда быть прямо противоположным. Элементы игры бывают преувеличены, многократно повторяются, но часто не завершаются. Обычно животное подает сигнал о том, что оно собирается начать игру. У макак-резусов это "игровая мимика", у кошек и собак - припадание на грудь и передние лапы. Иногда в игре животное использует совершенно новое движение, которое не встречается у взрослых животных. Описано игровое сальто у ручного барсука и кувырок через голову с изменением маршрута у щенка, убегавшего от матери. Игровое поведение легко прерывается, и животное возвращается к обычной жизни.

Ученые пришли к выводу, что в основе игрового поведения лежит мотивация, отличная от мотивации того поведения, которое изображается в игре (в охоте - мотивация голода, в половом поведении - мотивация продолжения рода и т. д.). Мотивация, которая лежит в основе игры, настолько сильная, что может конкурировать с другими желаниями животного. Например, молодая самка шимпанзе, которую не кормили в течение 15 часов, в 40% случаев выбирала игру с другими обезьянами, а не пищу.

Зачем нужна игра? Прежде всего, игра - это тренировка для развития мышечной, опорно-двигательной, дыхательной, сердечно-сосудистой и нервной систем. Она способствует увеличению мышечной массы, массы сердца, плотности капиллярного русла, повышению жизненной емкости легких, скорости роста организма. Игра знакомит молодое животное с окружающей средой. Котенок, играющий с клубком шерсти, начинает понимать, что не все маленькие, мягкие, быстро передвигающиеся предметы съедобны, как мыши. Лишение животного возможности играть имеет далеко идущие последствия. Макака резус, выросшая изолированно от других обезьян с манекеном матери, не умела впоследствии играть со сверстниками, устанавливать нормальные отношения с сородичами и в дальнейшем - спариваться. Сложности в период полового поведения наблюдали и у собак, выросших без общения с другими собаками. Отдельные элементы полового, охотничьего поведения отрабатываются в играх детенышей еще до наступления половой зрелости, поэтому развитие поведения носит опережающий характер.

Исследование энергетического обмена организма выявило обратную зависимость между уровнем обмена веществ в покое и игровой активностью. Так что игра восполняет дефицит энергетических затрат организма в молодом возрасте.

Изучение активности нервных клеток теменной области коры мозга показало, что их способность отвечать на несколько раздражителей (свет, звук, прикосновение к коже) возрастает от 6 % клеток у 8-10 дневных котят до 89 % у 49-50 дневных, то есть совпадает с развитием игрового поведения. Следовательно, игра необходима для развития не только телесных, но и мозговых структур организма.